
import sys

PY3 = (sys.version_info[0] >= 3)
if PY3:
    string_types = str,
else:
    string_types = basestring,


from pybindgen.utils import any, mangle_name
import warnings
import traceback

from pybindgen.typehandlers.base import Parameter, ReturnValue, \
    join_ctype_and_name, CodeGenerationError, \
    param_type_matcher, return_type_matcher, CodegenErrorBase, \
    DeclarationsScope, CodeBlock, NotSupportedError, ForwardWrapperBase, ReverseWrapperBase, \
    TypeConfigurationError

from pybindgen.typehandlers.codesink import NullCodeSink, MemoryCodeSink

from pybindgen.cppattribute import CppInstanceAttributeGetter, CppInstanceAttributeSetter, \
    CppStaticAttributeGetter, CppStaticAttributeSetter, \
    PyGetSetDef, PyMetaclass

from pybindgen.pytypeobject import PyTypeObject, PyNumberMethods, PySequenceMethods
from pybindgen.cppcustomattribute import CppCustomInstanceAttributeGetter, CppCustomInstanceAttributeSetter

from pybindgen import settings
from pybindgen import utils

from pybindgen.cppclass_container import CppClassContainerTraits
from . import function

import collections

try:
    set
except NameError:
    from sets import Set as set

def _type_no_ref(value_type):
    if value_type.type_traits.type_is_reference:
        return str(value_type.type_traits.target)
    else:
        return str(value_type.type_traits.ctype_no_modifiers)


def get_python_to_c_converter(value, root_module, code_sink):
    if isinstance(value, CppClass):
        val_converter = root_module.generate_python_to_c_type_converter(value.ThisClassReturn(value.full_name), code_sink)
        val_name = value.full_name
    elif isinstance(value, ReturnValue):
        val_name = _type_no_ref(value)
        if val_name != value.ctype:
            value = ReturnValue.new(val_name)
        val_converter = root_module.generate_python_to_c_type_converter(value, code_sink)
    elif isinstance(value, Parameter):
        val_name = _type_no_ref(value)
        val_return_type = ReturnValue.new(val_name)
        val_converter = root_module.generate_python_to_c_type_converter(val_return_type, code_sink)
    else:
        raise ValueError("Don't know how to convert %r" % (value,))
    return val_converter, val_name

def get_c_to_python_converter(value, root_module, code_sink):
    if isinstance(value, CppClass):
        val_converter = root_module.generate_c_to_python_type_converter(value.ThisClassReturn(value.full_name), code_sink)
        val_name = value.full_name
    elif isinstance(value, ReturnValue):
        val_converter = root_module.generate_c_to_python_type_converter(value, code_sink)
        val_name = _type_no_ref(value)
    elif isinstance(value, Parameter):
        val_return_type = ReturnValue.new(value.ctype)
        val_converter = root_module.generate_c_to_python_type_converter(val_return_type, code_sink)
        val_name = _type_no_ref(value)
    else:
        raise ValueError("Don't know how to convert %s" % str(value))
    return val_converter, val_name

class MemoryPolicy(object):
    """memory management policy for a C++ class or C/C++ struct"""
    def __init__(self):
        if type(self) is MemoryPolicy:
            raise NotImplementedError("class is abstract")

    def get_free_code(self, object_expression):
        """
        Return a code statement to free an underlying C/C++ object.
        """
        raise NotImplementedError

    def get_pointer_type(self, class_full_name):
        return "%s *" % (class_full_name,)

    def get_pointer_to_void_name(self, object_name):
        return "%s" % object_name

    def get_instance_creation_function(self):
        return default_instance_creation_function

    def get_delete_code(self, cpp_class):
        raise NotImplementedError

    def get_pystruct_init_code(self, cpp_class, obj):
        return ''

    def register_ptr_parameter_and_return(self, cls, name):
        class ThisClassPtrParameter(CppClassPtrParameter):
            """Register this C++ class as pass-by-pointer parameter"""
            CTYPES = []
            cpp_class = cls
        cls.ThisClassPtrParameter = ThisClassPtrParameter
        try:
            param_type_matcher.register(name+'*', cls.ThisClassPtrParameter)
        except ValueError:
            pass

        class ThisClassPtrReturn(CppClassPtrReturnValue):
            """Register this C++ class as pointer return"""
            CTYPES = []
            cpp_class = cls
        cls.ThisClassPtrReturn = ThisClassPtrReturn
        try:
            return_type_matcher.register(name+'*', cls.ThisClassPtrReturn)
        except ValueError:
            pass

    def register_ptr_alias_parameter_and_return(self, cls, alias):
        cls.ThisClassPtrParameter.CTYPES.append(alias+'*')
        try:
            param_type_matcher.register(alias+'*', cls.ThisClassPtrParameter)
        except ValueError: pass

        cls.ThisClassPtrReturn.CTYPES.append(alias+'*')
        try:
            return_type_matcher.register(alias+'*', cls.ThisClassPtrReturn)
        except ValueError: pass


class ReferenceCountingPolicy(MemoryPolicy):
    def write_incref(self, code_block, obj_expr):
        """
        Write code to increase the reference code of an object of this
        class (the real C++ class, not the wrapper).  Should only be
        called if the class supports reference counting, as reported
        by the attribute `CppClass.has_reference_counting`.
        """
        raise NotImplementedError

    def write_decref(self, code_block, obj_expr):
        """
        Write code to decrease the reference code of an object of this
        class (the real C++ class, not the wrapper).  Should only be
        called if the class supports reference counting, as reported
        by the attribute `CppClass.has_reference_counting`.
        """
        raise NotImplementedError


class ReferenceCountingMethodsPolicy(ReferenceCountingPolicy):
    def __init__(self, incref_method, decref_method, peekref_method=None):
        super(ReferenceCountingMethodsPolicy, self).__init__()
        self.incref_method = incref_method
        self.decref_method = decref_method
        self.peekref_method = peekref_method

    def write_incref(self, code_block, obj_expr):
        code_block.write_code('%s->%s();' % (obj_expr, self.incref_method))

    def write_decref(self, code_block, obj_expr):
        code_block.write_code('%s->%s();' % (obj_expr, self.decref_method))

    def get_delete_code(self, cpp_class):
        delete_code = ("if (self->obj) {\n"
                       "    %s *tmp = self->obj;\n"
                       "    self->obj = NULL;\n"
                       "    tmp->%s();\n"
                       "}"
                       % (cpp_class.full_name, self.decref_method))
        return delete_code

    def __repr__(self):
        return 'cppclass.ReferenceCountingMethodsPolicy(incref_method=%r, decref_method=%r, peekref_method=%r)' \
            % (self.incref_method, self.decref_method, self.peekref_method)


class ReferenceCountingFunctionsPolicy(ReferenceCountingPolicy):
    def __init__(self, incref_function, decref_function, peekref_function=None):
        super(ReferenceCountingFunctionsPolicy, self).__init__()
        self.incref_function = incref_function
        self.decref_function = decref_function
        self.peekref_function = peekref_function

    def write_incref(self, code_block, obj_expr):
        code_block.write_code('%s(%s);' % (self.incref_function, obj_expr))

    def write_decref(self, code_block, obj_expr):
        code_block.write_code('%s(%s);' % (self.decref_function, obj_expr))

    def get_delete_code(self, cpp_class):
        delete_code = ("if (self->obj) {\n"
                       "    %s *tmp = self->obj;\n"
                       "    self->obj = NULL;\n"
                       "    %s(tmp);\n"
                       "}"
                       % (cpp_class.full_name, self.decref_function))
        return delete_code

    def __repr__(self):
        return 'cppclass.ReferenceCountingFunctionsPolicy(incref_function=%r, decref_function=%r, peekref_function=%r)' \
            % (self.incref_function, self.decref_function, self.peekref_function)

class FreeFunctionPolicy(MemoryPolicy):
    def __init__(self, free_function):
        super(FreeFunctionPolicy, self).__init__()
        self.free_function = free_function


    def get_delete_code(self, cpp_class):
        delete_code = ("if (self->obj) {\n"
                       "    %s *tmp = self->obj;\n"
                       "    self->obj = NULL;\n"
                       "    %s(tmp);\n"
                       "}"
                       % (cpp_class.full_name, self.free_function))
        return delete_code

    def __repr__(self):
        return 'cppclass.FreeFunctionPolicy(%r)' % self.free_function

class SmartPointerPolicy(MemoryPolicy):
    pointer_template = None # class should fill this or create descriptor/getter

def default_instance_creation_function(cpp_class, code_block, lvalue,
                                       parameters, construct_type_name):
    """
    Default "instance creation function"; it is called whenever a new
    C++ class instance needs to be created; this default
    implementation uses a standard C++ new allocator.

    :param cpp_class: the CppClass object whose instance is to be created
    :param code_block: CodeBlock object on which the instance creation code should be generated
    :param lvalue: lvalue expression that should hold the result in the end
    :param parameters: stringified list of parameters
    :param construct_type_name: actual name of type to be constructed (it is
                          not always the class name, sometimes it's
                          the python helper class)
    """
    assert lvalue
    assert not lvalue.startswith('None')
    if cpp_class.incomplete_type:
        raise CodeGenerationError("%s cannot be constructed (incomplete type)"
                                  % cpp_class.full_name)
    code_block.write_code(
        "%s = new %s(%s);" % (lvalue, construct_type_name, parameters))

class CppHelperClass(object):
    """
    Generates code for a C++ proxy subclass that takes care of
    forwarding virtual methods from C++ to Python.
    """

    def __init__(self, class_):
        """
        :param class_: original CppClass wrapper object
        """
        self.class_ = class_
        self.name = class_.pystruct + "__PythonHelper"
        self.virtual_parent_callers = {}
        self.virtual_proxies = []
        self.cannot_be_constructed = False
        self.custom_methods = []
        self.post_generation_code = []
        self.virtual_methods = []

    def add_virtual_method(self, method):
        assert method.is_virtual
        assert method.class_ is not None

        for existing in self.virtual_methods:
            if method.matches_signature(existing):
                return # don't re-add already existing method

        if isinstance(method, CppDummyMethod):
            if method.is_pure_virtual:
                self.cannot_be_constructed = True
        else:
            self.virtual_methods.append(method)
            if not method.is_pure_virtual:
                if settings._get_deprecated_virtuals():
                    vis = ['public', 'protected']
                else:
                    vis = ['protected']
                if method.visibility in vis:
                    parent_caller = CppVirtualMethodParentCaller(method)
                    #parent_caller.class_ = method.class_
                    parent_caller.helper_class = self
                    parent_caller.main_wrapper = method # XXX: need to explain this
                    self.add_virtual_parent_caller(parent_caller)

            proxy = CppVirtualMethodProxy(method)
            proxy.main_wrapper = method # XXX: need to explain this
            self.add_virtual_proxy(proxy)


    def add_virtual_parent_caller(self, parent_caller):
        """Add a new CppVirtualMethodParentCaller object to this helper class"""
        assert isinstance(parent_caller, CppVirtualMethodParentCaller)

        name = parent_caller.method_name
        try:
            overload = self.virtual_parent_callers[name]
        except KeyError:
            overload = CppOverloadedMethod(name)
            ## implicit conversions + virtual methods disabled
            ## temporarily until I can figure out how to fix the unit
            ## tests.
            overload.enable_implicit_conversions = False
            #overload.static_decl = False
            overload.pystruct = self.class_.pystruct
            self.virtual_parent_callers[name] = overload
            assert self.class_ is not None

        for existing in overload.wrappers:
            if parent_caller.matches_signature(existing):
                break # don't re-add already existing method
        else:
            overload.add(parent_caller)

    def add_custom_method(self, declaration, body=None):
        """
        Add a custom method to the helper class, given by a
        declaration line and a body.  The body can be None, in case
        the whole method definition is included in the declaration
        itself.
        """
        self.custom_methods.append((declaration, body))

    def add_post_generation_code(self, code):
        """
        Add custom code to be included right after the helper class is generated.
        """
        self.post_generation_code.append(code)

    def add_virtual_proxy(self, virtual_proxy):
        """Add a new CppVirtualMethodProxy object to this class"""
        assert isinstance(virtual_proxy, CppVirtualMethodProxy)
        self.virtual_proxies.append(virtual_proxy)

    def generate_forward_declarations(self, code_sink_param):
        """
        Generate the proxy class (declaration only) to a given code sink
        """
        code_sink = MemoryCodeSink()
        if self._generate_forward_declarations(code_sink):
            code_sink.flush_to(code_sink_param)
        else:
            self.cannot_be_constructed = True

    def _generate_forward_declarations(self, code_sink):
        """
        Generate the proxy class (declaration only) to a given code sink.

        Returns True if all is well, False if a pure virtual method
        was found that could not be generated.
        """
        code_sink.writeln("class %s : public %s\n{\npublic:" %
                          (self.name, self.class_.full_name))

        code_sink.indent()
        code_sink.writeln("PyObject *m_pyself;")

        if not self.class_.import_from_module:
            ## replicate the parent constructors in the helper class
            implemented_constructor_signatures = []
            for cons in self.class_.constructors:

                ## filter out duplicated constructors
                signature = [param.ctype for param in cons.parameters]
                if signature in implemented_constructor_signatures:
                    continue
                implemented_constructor_signatures.append(signature)

                params = [join_ctype_and_name(param.ctype, param.name)
                          for param in cons.parameters]
                code_sink.writeln("%s(%s)" % (self.name, ', '.join(params)))
                code_sink.indent()
                code_sink.writeln(": %s(%s), m_pyself(NULL)\n{}" %
                                  (self.class_.full_name,
                                   ', '.join([param.name for param in cons.parameters])))
                code_sink.unindent()
                code_sink.writeln()

        ## add the set_pyobj method
        code_sink.writeln("""
void set_pyobj(PyObject *pyobj)
{
    Py_XDECREF(m_pyself);
    Py_INCREF(pyobj);
    m_pyself = pyobj;
}
""")

        ## write a destructor
        code_sink.writeln("virtual ~%s()\n{" % self.name)
        code_sink.indent()
        code_sink.writeln("Py_CLEAR(m_pyself);")
        code_sink.unindent()
        code_sink.writeln("}\n")

        if not self.class_.import_from_module:
            ## write the parent callers (_name)
            for parent_caller in self.virtual_parent_callers.values():
                #parent_caller.class_ = self.class_
                parent_caller.helper_class = self
                parent_caller.reset_code_generation_state()
                ## test code generation
                try:
                    try:
                        utils.call_with_error_handling(parent_caller.generate,
                                                       (NullCodeSink(),), {}, parent_caller)
                    except utils.SkipWrapper:
                        continue
                finally:
                    parent_caller.reset_code_generation_state()

                code_sink.writeln()
                parent_caller.generate_class_declaration(code_sink)

                for parent_caller_wrapper in parent_caller.wrappers:
                    parent_caller_wrapper.generate_parent_caller_method(code_sink)


            ## write the virtual proxies
            for virtual_proxy in self.virtual_proxies:
                #virtual_proxy.class_ = self.class_
                virtual_proxy.helper_class = self
                ## test code generation
                #virtual_proxy.class_ = self.class_
                #virtual_proxy.helper_class = self
                virtual_proxy.reset_code_generation_state()
                try:
                    try:
                        utils.call_with_error_handling(virtual_proxy.generate,
                                                       (NullCodeSink(),), {}, virtual_proxy)
                    except utils.SkipWrapper:
                        if virtual_proxy.method.is_pure_virtual:
                            return False
                        continue

                finally:
                    virtual_proxy.reset_code_generation_state()

                code_sink.writeln()
                virtual_proxy.generate_declaration(code_sink)

            for custom_declaration, dummy in self.custom_methods:
                code_sink.writeln(custom_declaration)

        code_sink.unindent()
        code_sink.writeln("};\n")

        if not self.class_.import_from_module:
            for code in self.post_generation_code:
                code_sink.writeln(code)
                code_sink.writeln()

        return True

    def generate(self, code_sink):
        """
        Generate the proxy class (virtual method bodies only) to a given code sink.
        returns pymethodef list of parent callers
        """
        if self.class_.import_from_module:
            return

        ## write the parent callers (_name)
        method_defs = []
        for name, parent_caller in self.virtual_parent_callers.items():
            #parent_caller.class_ = self.class_
            parent_caller.helper_class = self
            code_sink.writeln()

            ## parent_caller.generate(code_sink)
            try:
                utils.call_with_error_handling(parent_caller.generate,
                                               (code_sink,), {}, parent_caller)
            except utils.SkipWrapper:
                continue
            if settings._get_deprecated_virtuals():
                parent_caller_name = '_'+name
            else:
                parent_caller_name = name
            method_defs.append(parent_caller.get_py_method_def(parent_caller_name))

        ## write the virtual proxies
        for virtual_proxy in self.virtual_proxies:
            #virtual_proxy.class_ = self.class_
            virtual_proxy.helper_class = self
            code_sink.writeln()

            ## virtual_proxy.generate(code_sink)
            try:
                utils.call_with_error_handling(virtual_proxy.generate,
                                               (code_sink,), {}, virtual_proxy)
            except utils.SkipWrapper:
                assert not virtual_proxy.method.is_pure_virtual
                continue

        for dummy, custom_body in self.custom_methods:
            if custom_body:
                code_sink.writeln(custom_body)

        return method_defs



class CppClass(object):
    """
    A CppClass object takes care of generating the code for wrapping a C++ class
    """

    def __init__(self, name, parent=None, incref_method=None, decref_method=None,
                 automatic_type_narrowing=None, allow_subclassing=None,
                 is_singleton=False, outer_class=None,
                 peekref_method=None,
                 template_parameters=(), custom_template_class_name=None,
                 incomplete_type=False, free_function=None,
                 incref_function=None, decref_function=None,
                 python_name=None, memory_policy=None,
                 foreign_cpp_namespace=None,
                 docstring=None,
                 custom_name=None,
                 import_from_module=None,
                 destructor_visibility='public'
                 ):
        """
        :param name: class name

        :param parent: optional parent class wrapper, or list of
                       parents.  Valid values are None, a CppClass
                       instance, or a list of CppClass instances.

        :param incref_method: (deprecated in favour of memory_policy) if the class supports reference counting, the
                         name of the method that increments the
                         reference count (may be inherited from parent
                         if not given)
        :param decref_method: (deprecated in favour of memory_policy) if the class supports reference counting, the
                         name of the method that decrements the
                         reference count (may be inherited from parent
                         if not given)
        :param automatic_type_narrowing: if True, automatic return type
                                    narrowing will be done on objects
                                    of this class and its descendants
                                    when returned by pointer from a
                                    function or method.
        :param allow_subclassing: if True, generated class wrappers will
                             allow subclassing in Python.
        :param is_singleton: if True, the class is considered a singleton,
                        and so the python wrapper will never call the
                        C++ class destructor to free the value.
        :param peekref_method: (deprecated in favour of memory_policy) if the class supports reference counting, the
                          name of the method that returns the current reference count.
        :param free_function: (deprecated in favour of memory_policy) name of C function used to deallocate class instances
        :param incref_function: (deprecated in favour of memory_policy) same as incref_method, but as a function instead of method
        :param decref_function: (deprecated in favour of memory_policy) same as decref_method, but as a function instead of method

        :param python_name: name of the class as it will appear from
             Python side.  This parameter is DEPRECATED in favour of
             custom_name.

        :param memory_policy: memory management policy; if None, it
            inherits from the parent class.  Only root classes can have a
            memory policy defined.
        :type memory_policy: L{MemoryPolicy}

        :param foreign_cpp_namespace: if set, the class is assumed to
            belong to the given C++ namespace, regardless of the C++
            namespace of the python module it will be added to.  For
            instance, this can be useful to wrap std classes, like
            std::ofstream, without having to create an extra python
            submodule.

        :param docstring: None or a string containing the docstring
            that will be generated for the class

        :param custom_name: an alternative name to give to this class
            at python-side; if omitted, the name of the class in the
            python module will be the same name as the class in C++
            (minus namespace).

        :param import_from_module: if not None, the type is imported
                    from a foreign Python module with the given name.
        """
        assert outer_class is None or isinstance(outer_class, CppClass)
        self.incomplete_type = incomplete_type
        self.outer_class = outer_class
        self._module = None
        self.name = name
        self.docstring = docstring
        self.mangled_name = None
        self.mangled_full_name = None
        self.template_parameters = template_parameters
        self.container_traits = None
        self.import_from_module = import_from_module
        assert destructor_visibility in ['public', 'private', 'protected']
        self.destructor_visibility = destructor_visibility

        self.custom_name = custom_name
        if custom_template_class_name:
            warnings.warn("Use the custom_name parameter.",
                          DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
            self.custom_name = custom_template_class_name
        if python_name:
            warnings.warn("Use the custom_name parameter.",
                          DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
            self.custom_name = python_name

        self.is_singleton = is_singleton
        self.foreign_cpp_namespace = foreign_cpp_namespace
        self.full_name = None # full name with C++ namespaces attached and template parameters
        self.methods = collections.OrderedDict() # name => OverloadedMethod
        self._dummy_methods = [] # methods that have parameter/retval binding problems
        self.nonpublic_methods = []
        self.constructors = [] # (name, wrapper) pairs
        self.pytype = PyTypeObject()
        self.slots = self.pytype.slots
        self.helper_class = None
        self.instance_creation_function = None
        self.post_instance_creation_function = None
        ## set to True when we become aware generating the helper
        ## class is not going to be possible
        self.helper_class_disabled = False
        self.cannot_be_constructed = '' # reason
        self.has_trivial_constructor = False
        self.has_copy_constructor = False
        self.has_output_stream_operator = False
        self._have_pure_virtual_methods = None
        self._wrapper_registry = None
        self.binary_comparison_operators = set()
        self.binary_numeric_operators = dict()
        self.inplace_numeric_operators = dict()
        self.unary_numeric_operators = dict()
        self.valid_sequence_methods = {"__len__"       : "sq_length",
                                       "__add__"       : "sq_concat",
                                       "__mul__"       : "sq_repeat",
                                       "__getitem__"   : "sq_item",
                                       "__getslice__"  : "sq_slice",
                                       "__setitem__"   : "sq_ass_item",
                                       "__setslice__"  : "sq_ass_slice",
                                       "__contains__"  : "sq_contains",
                                       "__iadd__"      : "sq_inplace_concat",
                                       "__imul__"      : "sq_inplace_repeat"}

        ## list of CppClasses from which a value of this class can be
        ## implicitly generated; corresponds to a
        ## operator ThisClass(); in the other class.
        self.implicitly_converts_from = []

        ## list of hook functions to call just prior to helper class
        ## code generation.
        self.helper_class_hooks = []

        self._pystruct = None #"***GIVE ME A NAME***"
        self.metaclass_name = "***GIVE ME A NAME***"
        self.pytypestruct = "***GIVE ME A NAME***"

        self.instance_attributes = PyGetSetDef("%s__getsets" % self._pystruct)
        self.static_attributes = PyGetSetDef("%s__getsets" % self.metaclass_name)

        if isinstance(parent, list):
            self.bases = list(parent)
            self.parent = self.bases[0]
        elif isinstance(parent, CppClass):
            self.parent = parent
            self.bases = [parent]
        elif parent is None:
            self.parent = None
            self.bases = []
        else:
            raise TypeError("'parent' must be None, CppClass instance, or a list of CppClass instances")

        if free_function:
            warnings.warn("Use FreeFunctionPolicy and memory_policy parameter.", DeprecationWarning)
            assert memory_policy is None
            memory_policy = FreeFunctionPolicy(free_function)
        elif incref_method:
            warnings.warn("Use ReferenceCountingMethodsPolicy and memory_policy parameter.", DeprecationWarning)
            assert memory_policy is None
            memory_policy = ReferenceCountingMethodsPolicy(incref_method, decref_method, peekref_method)
        elif incref_function:
            warnings.warn("Use ReferenceCountingFunctionsPolicy and memory_policy parameter.", DeprecationWarning)
            assert memory_policy is None
            memory_policy = ReferenceCountingFunctionsPolicy(incref_function, decref_function)

        if not self.bases:
            assert memory_policy is None or isinstance(memory_policy, MemoryPolicy)
            self.memory_policy = memory_policy
        else:
            for base in self.bases:
                if base.memory_policy is not None:
                    self.memory_policy = base.memory_policy
                    assert memory_policy is None, \
                        "changing memory policy from parent (%s) to child (%s) class not permitted" \
                        % (base.name, self.name)
                    break
            else:
                self.memory_policy = memory_policy

        if automatic_type_narrowing is None:
            if not self.bases:
                self.automatic_type_narrowing = settings.automatic_type_narrowing
            else:
                self.automatic_type_narrowing = self.parent.automatic_type_narrowing
        else:
            self.automatic_type_narrowing = automatic_type_narrowing

        if allow_subclassing is None:
            if self.parent is None:
                self.allow_subclassing = settings.allow_subclassing
            else:
                self.allow_subclassing = self.parent.allow_subclassing
        else:
            if any([p.allow_subclassing for p in self.bases]) and not allow_subclassing:
                raise ValueError("Cannot disable subclassing if a parent class allows it")
            else:
                self.allow_subclassing = allow_subclassing

        if self.destructor_visibility not in ['public', 'protected']:
            self.allow_subclassing = False

        self.typeid_map_name = None

        if name != 'dummy':
            ## register type handlers

            class ThisClassParameter(CppClassParameter):
                """Register this C++ class as pass-by-value parameter"""
                CTYPES = []
                cpp_class = self
            self.ThisClassParameter = ThisClassParameter
            try:
                param_type_matcher.register(name, self.ThisClassParameter)
            except ValueError:
                pass


            class ThisClassRefParameter(CppClassRefParameter):
                """Register this C++ class as pass-by-reference parameter"""
                CTYPES = []
                cpp_class = self
            self.ThisClassRefParameter = ThisClassRefParameter
            try:
                param_type_matcher.register(name+'&', self.ThisClassRefParameter)
            except ValueError:
                pass

            class ThisClassReturn(CppClassReturnValue):
                """Register this C++ class as value return"""
                CTYPES = []
                cpp_class = self
            self.ThisClassReturn = ThisClassReturn
            self.ThisClassRefReturn = ThisClassReturn
            try:
                return_type_matcher.register(name, self.ThisClassReturn)
                return_type_matcher.register(name, self.ThisClassRefReturn)
            except ValueError:
                pass

            if self.memory_policy is not None:
                self.memory_policy.register_ptr_parameter_and_return(self, name)
            else: # Regular pointer
                class ThisClassPtrParameter(CppClassPtrParameter):
                    """Register this C++ class as pass-by-pointer parameter"""
                    CTYPES = []
                    cpp_class = self
                self.ThisClassPtrParameter = ThisClassPtrParameter
                try:
                    param_type_matcher.register(name+'*', self.ThisClassPtrParameter)
                except ValueError:
                    pass

                class ThisClassPtrReturn(CppClassPtrReturnValue):
                    """Register this C++ class as pointer return"""
                    CTYPES = []
                    cpp_class = self
                self.ThisClassPtrReturn = ThisClassPtrReturn
                try:
                    return_type_matcher.register(name+'*', self.ThisClassPtrReturn)
                except ValueError:
                    pass


            class ThisClassRefReturn(CppClassRefReturnValue):
                """Register this C++ class as reference return"""
                CTYPES = []
                cpp_class = self
            self.ThisClassRefReturn = ThisClassRefReturn
            try:
                return_type_matcher.register(name+'&', self.ThisClassRefReturn)
            except ValueError:
                pass

    def __repr__(self):
        return "<pybindgen.CppClass %r>" % self.full_name

    def add_container_traits(self, *args, **kwargs):
        assert self.container_traits is None
        self.container_traits = CppClassContainerTraits(self, *args, **kwargs)

    def add_binary_comparison_operator(self, operator):
        """
        Add support for a C++ binary comparison operator, such as == or <.

        The binary operator is assumed to operate with both operands
        of the type of the class, either by reference or by value.

        :param operator: string indicating the name of the operator to
            support, e.g. '=='
        """
        operator = utils.ascii(operator)
        if not isinstance(operator, string_types):
            raise TypeError("expected operator name as string")
        if operator not in ['==', '!=', '<', '<=', '>', '>=']:
            raise ValueError("The operator %r is invalid or not yet supported by PyBindGen" % (operator,))
        self.binary_comparison_operators.add(operator)

    def add_binary_numeric_operator(self, operator, result_cppclass=None,
                                    left_cppclass=None, right=None):
        """
        Add support for a C++ binary numeric operator, such as +, -, \\*, or /.

        :param operator: string indicating the name of the operator to
           support, e.g. '=='

        :param result_cppclass: the CppClass object of the result type, assumed to be this class if omitted
        :param left_cppclass: the CppClass object of the left operand type, assumed to be this class if omitted

        :param right: the type of the right parameter. Can be a
          CppClass, Parameter, or param spec. Assumed to be this class
          if omitted
        """
        operator = utils.ascii(operator)
        if not isinstance(operator, string_types):
            raise TypeError("expected operator name as string")
        if operator not in ['+', '-', '*', '/']:
            raise ValueError("The operator %r is invalid or not yet supported by PyBindGen" % (operator,))
        try:
            l = self.binary_numeric_operators[operator]
        except KeyError:
            l = []
            self.binary_numeric_operators[operator] = l
        if result_cppclass is None:
            result_cppclass = self
        if left_cppclass is None:
            left_cppclass = self

        if right is None:
            right = self
        elif isinstance(right, CppClass):
            pass
        else:
            if isinstance(right, string_types):
                right = utils.param(right, 'right')
            try:
                right = utils.eval_param(right, None)
            except utils.SkipWrapper:
                return

        op = (result_cppclass, left_cppclass, right)
        if op not in l:
            l.append(op)


    def add_inplace_numeric_operator(self, operator, right=None):
        """
        Add support for a C++ inplace numeric operator, such as +=, -=, \\*=, or /=.

        :param operator: string indicating the name of the operator to
           support, e.g. '+='

        :param right: the type of the right parameter. Can be a
          CppClass, Parameter, or param spec. Assumed to be this class
          if omitted
        """
        operator = utils.ascii(operator)
        if not isinstance(operator, string_types):
            raise TypeError("expected operator name as string")
        if operator not in ['+=', '-=', '*=', '/=']:
            raise ValueError("The operator %r is invalid or not yet supported by PyBindGen" % (operator,))
        try:
            l = self.inplace_numeric_operators[operator]
        except KeyError:
            l = []
            self.inplace_numeric_operators[operator] = l
        if right is None:
            right = self
        else:
            if isinstance(right, string_types):
                right = utils.param(right, 'right')
            try:
                right = utils.eval_param(right, None)
            except utils.SkipWrapper:
                return
        if right not in l:
            l.append((self, self, right))

    def add_unary_numeric_operator(self, operator, result_cppclass=None, left_cppclass=None):
        """
        Add support for a C++ unary numeric operators, currently only -.

        :param operator: string indicating the name of the operator to
          support, e.g. '-'

        :param result_cppclass: the CppClass object of the result type, assumed to be this class if omitted
        :param left_cppclass: the CppClass object of the left operand type, assumed to be this class if omitted
        """
        operator = utils.ascii(operator)
        if not isinstance(operator, string_types):
            raise TypeError("expected operator name as string")
        if operator not in ['-']:
            raise ValueError("The operator %r is invalid or not yet supported by PyBindGen" % (operator,))
        try:
            l = self.unary_numeric_operators[operator]
        except KeyError:
            l = []
            self.unary_numeric_operators[operator] = l
        if result_cppclass is None:
            result_cppclass = self
        if left_cppclass is None:
            left_cppclass = self
        op = (result_cppclass, left_cppclass)
        if op not in l:
            l.append(op)

    def add_class(self, *args, **kwargs):
        """
        Add a nested class.  See L{CppClass} for information about accepted parameters.
        """
        assert 'outer_class' not in kwargs
        kwargs['outer_class'] = self
        return self.module.add_class(*args, **kwargs)


    def add_enum(self, *args, **kwargs):
        """
        Add a nested enum.  See L{Enum} for information about accepted parameters.
        """
        assert 'outer_class' not in kwargs
        kwargs['outer_class'] = self
        return self.module.add_enum(*args, **kwargs)


    def get_mro(self):
        """
        Get the method resolution order (MRO) of this class.

        :return: an iterator that gives CppClass objects, from leaf to root class
        """
        to_visit = [self]
        visited = set()
        while to_visit:
            cls = to_visit.pop(0)
            visited.add(cls)
            yield cls
            for base in cls.bases:
                if base not in visited:
                    to_visit.append(base)

    def get_all_methods(self):
        """Returns an iterator to iterate over all methods of the class"""
        for overload in self.methods.values():
            for method in overload.wrappers:
                yield method
        for method in self.nonpublic_methods:
            yield method

    def get_have_pure_virtual_methods(self):
        """
        Returns True if the class has pure virtual methods with no
        implementation (which would mean the type is not instantiable
        directly, only through a helper class).
        """
        if self._have_pure_virtual_methods is not None:
            return self._have_pure_virtual_methods
        mro = list(self.get_mro())
        mro_reversed = list(mro)
        mro_reversed.reverse()

        self._have_pure_virtual_methods = False
        for pos, cls in enumerate(mro_reversed):
            for method in list(cls.get_all_methods()) + cls._dummy_methods:
                if not isinstance(method, CppMethod):
                    continue

                if method.is_pure_virtual:
                    ## found a pure virtual method; now go see in the
                    ## child classes, check if any of them implements
                    ## this pure virtual method.
                    implemented = False
                    for child_cls in mro_reversed[pos+1:]:
                        for child_method in list(child_cls.get_all_methods()) + child_cls._dummy_methods:
                            if not isinstance(child_method, CppMethod):
                                continue
                            if not child_method.is_virtual:
                                continue
                            if not child_method.matches_signature(method):
                                continue
                            if not child_method.is_pure_virtual:
                                implemented = True
                            break
                        if implemented:
                            break
                    if not implemented:
                        self._have_pure_virtual_methods = True

        return self._have_pure_virtual_methods

    have_pure_virtual_methods = property(get_have_pure_virtual_methods)


    def is_subclass(self, other):
        """Return True if this CppClass instance represents a class that is a
        subclass of another class represented by the CppClasss object \\`other\\'."""
        if not isinstance(other, CppClass):
            raise TypeError
        return other in self.get_mro()

    def add_helper_class_hook(self, hook):
        """
        Add a hook function to be called just prior to a helper class
        being generated.  The hook function applies to this class and
        all subclasses.  The hook function is called like this::
          hook_function(helper_class)
        """
        if not isinstance(hook, collections.Callable):
            raise TypeError("hook function must be callable")
        self.helper_class_hooks.append(hook)

    def _get_all_helper_class_hooks(self):
        """
        Returns a list of all helper class hook functions, including
        the ones registered with parent classes.  Parent hooks will
        appear first in the list.
        """
        l = []
        for cls in self.get_mro():
            l = cls.helper_class_hooks + l
        return l

    def set_instance_creation_function(self, instance_creation_function):
        """Set a custom function to be called to create instances of this
        class and its subclasses.

        :param instance_creation_function: instance creation function; see
                                      default_instance_creation_function()
                                      for signature and example.
        """
        self.instance_creation_function = instance_creation_function

    def set_post_instance_creation_function(self, post_instance_creation_function):
        """Set a custom function to be called to add code after an
        instance is created (usually by the "instance creation
        function") and registered with the Python runtime.

        :param post_instance_creation_function: post instance creation function
        """
        self.post_instance_creation_function = post_instance_creation_function

    def get_instance_creation_function(self):
        for cls in self.get_mro():
            if cls.instance_creation_function is not None:
                return cls.instance_creation_function
        if cls.memory_policy is not None:
            return cls.memory_policy.get_instance_creation_function()
        return default_instance_creation_function

    def get_post_instance_creation_function(self):
        for cls in self.get_mro():
            if cls.post_instance_creation_function is not None:
                return cls.post_instance_creation_function
        return None

    def write_create_instance(self, code_block, lvalue, parameters, construct_type_name=None):
        instance_creation_func = self.get_instance_creation_function()
        if construct_type_name is None:
            construct_type_name = self.get_construct_name()
        instance_creation_func(self, code_block, lvalue, parameters, construct_type_name)

    def write_post_instance_creation_code(self, code_block, lvalue, parameters, construct_type_name=None):
        post_instance_creation_func = self.get_post_instance_creation_function()
        if post_instance_creation_func is None:
            return
        if construct_type_name is None:
            construct_type_name = self.get_construct_name()
        post_instance_creation_func(self, code_block, lvalue, parameters, construct_type_name)

    def get_pystruct(self):
        if self._pystruct is None:
            raise ValueError
        return self._pystruct
    pystruct = property(get_pystruct)

    def get_construct_name(self):
        """Get a name usable for new %s construction, or raise
        CodeGenerationError if none found"""
        if self.cannot_be_constructed:
            raise CodeGenerationError("%s cannot be constructed (%s)" % (self.full_name, self.cannot_be_constructed))
        if self.have_pure_virtual_methods:
            raise CodeGenerationError("%s cannot be constructed (class has pure virtual methods)" % self.full_name)
        else:
            return self.full_name


    def implicitly_converts_to(self, other):
        """
        Declares that values of this class can be implicitly converted
        to another class; corresponds to a operator AnotherClass();
        special method.
        """
        assert isinstance(other, CppClass)
        other.implicitly_converts_from.append(self)

    def get_all_implicit_conversions(self):
        """
        Gets a new list of all other classes whose value can be implicitly
        converted to a value of this class.

        >>> Foo = CppClass("Foo")
        >>> Bar = CppClass("Bar")
        >>> Zbr = CppClass("Zbr")
        >>> Bar.implicitly_converts_to(Foo)
        >>> Zbr.implicitly_converts_to(Bar)
        >>> l = Foo.get_all_implicit_conversions()
        >>> l.sort(lambda cls1, cls2: cmp(cls1.name, cls2.name))
        >>> [cls.name for cls in l]
        ['Bar']
        """
        return list(self.implicitly_converts_from)
#         classes = []
#         to_visit = list(self.implicitly_converts_from)
#         while to_visit:
#             source = to_visit.pop(0)
#             if source in classes or source is self:
#                 continue
#             classes.append(source)
#             to_visit.extend(source.implicitly_converts_from)
#         return classes

    def _update_names(self):

        prefix = settings.name_prefix.capitalize()

        if self.outer_class is None:
            if self.foreign_cpp_namespace:
                self.full_name = self.foreign_cpp_namespace + '::' + self.name
            else:
                if self._module.cpp_namespace_prefix:
                    if self._module.cpp_namespace_prefix == '::':
                        self.full_name = '::' + self.name
                    else:
                        self.full_name = self._module.cpp_namespace_prefix + '::' + self.name
                else:
                    self.full_name = self.name
        else:
            assert not self.foreign_cpp_namespace
            self.full_name = '::'.join([self.outer_class.full_name, self.name])

        def make_upper(s):
            if s and s[0].islower():
                return s[0].upper()+s[1:]
            else:
                return s

        def mangle(name):
            return mangle_name(name)

        def flatten(name):
            "make a name like::This look LikeThis"
            return ''.join([make_upper(mangle(s)) for s in name.split('::')])

        self.mangled_name = flatten(self.name)
        self.mangled_full_name = flatten(self.full_name)

        if self.template_parameters:
            self.full_name += "< %s >" % (', '.join(self.template_parameters))
            mangled_template_params = '__' + '_'.join([flatten(s) for s in self.template_parameters])
            self.mangled_name += mangled_template_params
            self.mangled_full_name += mangled_template_params

        self._pystruct = "Py%s%s" % (prefix, self.mangled_full_name)
        self.metaclass_name = "%sMeta" % self.mangled_full_name
        self.pytypestruct = "Py%s%s_Type" % (prefix,  self.mangled_full_name)

        self.instance_attributes.cname = "%s__getsets" % self._pystruct
        self.static_attributes.cname = "%s__getsets" % self.metaclass_name

        ## re-register the class type handlers, now with class full name
        self.register_alias(self.full_name)

        if self.get_type_narrowing_root() is self:
            self.typeid_map_name = "%s__typeid_map" % self.pystruct
        else:
            self.typeid_map_name = None

    def register_alias(self, alias):
        """Re-register the class with another base name, in addition to any
        registrations that might have already been done."""

        self.module.register_type(None, alias, self)

        self.ThisClassParameter.CTYPES.append(alias)
        try:
            param_type_matcher.register(alias, self.ThisClassParameter)
        except ValueError: pass

        self.ThisClassRefParameter.CTYPES.append(alias+'&')
        try:
            param_type_matcher.register(alias+'&', self.ThisClassRefParameter)
        except ValueError: pass

        self.ThisClassReturn.CTYPES.append(alias)
        try:
            return_type_matcher.register(alias, self.ThisClassReturn)
        except ValueError: pass

        if self.memory_policy is not None:
            self.memory_policy.register_ptr_alias_parameter_and_return(self, alias)
        else:
            self.ThisClassPtrParameter.CTYPES.append(alias+'*')
            try:
                param_type_matcher.register(alias+'*', self.ThisClassPtrParameter)
            except ValueError: pass

            self.ThisClassPtrReturn.CTYPES.append(alias+'*')
            try:
                return_type_matcher.register(alias+'*', self.ThisClassPtrReturn)
            except ValueError: pass

        self.ThisClassRefReturn.CTYPES.append(alias)
        try:
            return_type_matcher.register(alias+'&', self.ThisClassRefReturn)
        except ValueError: pass


    def get_module(self):
        """Get the Module object this class belongs to"""
        return self._module

    def set_module(self, module):
        """Set the Module object this class belongs to"""
        self._module = module
        self._update_names()

    module = property(get_module, set_module)


    def inherit_default_constructors(self):
        """inherit the default constructors from the parentclass according to C++
        language rules"""
        for base in self.bases:
            for cons in base.constructors:
                if len(cons.parameters) == 0:
                    self.add_constructor([], visibility=cons.visibility)
                elif (len(cons.parameters) == 1
                      and isinstance(cons.parameters[0], self.parent.ThisClassRefParameter)):
                    self.add_constructor([self.ThisClassRefParameter(
                        self.full_name + "&",
                        "obj",
                        cons.parameters[0].direction)],
                        visibility=cons.visibility)

    def get_helper_class(self):
        """gets the "helper class" for this class wrapper, creating it if necessary"""
        for cls in self.get_mro():
            if cls.helper_class_disabled:
                return None
        if not self.allow_subclassing:
            return None
        if self.helper_class is None:
            if not self.is_singleton:
                self.helper_class = CppHelperClass(self)
                self.module.add_include('<typeinfo>')
        return self.helper_class

    def get_type_narrowing_root(self):
        """Find the root CppClass along the subtree of all parent classes that
        have automatic_type_narrowing=True Note: multiple inheritance
        not implemented"""
        if not self.automatic_type_narrowing:
            return None
        root = self
        while (root.parent is not None
               and root.parent.automatic_type_narrowing):
            root = root.parent
        return root

    def _register_typeid(self, module):
        """register this class with the typeid map root class"""
        root = self.get_type_narrowing_root()
        module.after_init.write_code("%s.register_wrapper(typeid(%s), &%s);"
                                     % (root.typeid_map_name, self.full_name, self.pytypestruct))

    def _generate_typeid_map(self, code_sink, module):
        """generate the typeid map and fill it with values"""
        try:
            module.declare_one_time_definition("TypeIDMap")
        except KeyError:
            pass
        else:
            code_sink.writeln('''

#include <map>
#include <string>
#include <typeinfo>
#if defined(__GNUC__) && __GNUC__ >= 3 && !defined(__clang__)
# include <cxxabi.h>
#endif

#define PBG_TYPEMAP_DEBUG 0

namespace pybindgen {

class TypeMap
{
   std::map<std::string, PyTypeObject *> m_map;

public:

   TypeMap() {}

   void register_wrapper(const std::type_info &cpp_type_info, PyTypeObject *python_wrapper)
   {

#if PBG_TYPEMAP_DEBUG
   std::cerr << "register_wrapper(this=" << this << ", type_name=" << cpp_type_info.name()
             << ", python_wrapper=" << python_wrapper->tp_name << ")" << std::endl;
#endif

       m_map[std::string(cpp_type_info.name())] = python_wrapper;
   }

''')

            if settings.gcc_rtti_abi_complete:
                code_sink.writeln('''
   PyTypeObject * lookup_wrapper(const std::type_info &cpp_type_info, PyTypeObject *fallback_wrapper)
   {

#if PBG_TYPEMAP_DEBUG
   std::cerr << "lookup_wrapper(this=" << this << ", type_name=" << cpp_type_info.name() << ")" << std::endl;
#endif

       PyTypeObject *python_wrapper = m_map[cpp_type_info.name()];
       if (python_wrapper)
           return python_wrapper;
       else {
#if defined(__GNUC__) && __GNUC__ >= 3 && !defined(__clang__)

           // Get closest (in the single inheritance tree provided by cxxabi.h)
           // registered python wrapper.
           const abi::__si_class_type_info *_typeinfo =
               dynamic_cast<const abi::__si_class_type_info*> (&cpp_type_info);
#if PBG_TYPEMAP_DEBUG
          std::cerr << "  -> looking at C++ type " << _typeinfo->name() << std::endl;
#endif
           while (_typeinfo && (python_wrapper = m_map[std::string(_typeinfo->name())]) == 0) {
               _typeinfo = dynamic_cast<const abi::__si_class_type_info*> (_typeinfo->__base_type);
#if PBG_TYPEMAP_DEBUG
               std::cerr << "  -> looking at C++ type " << _typeinfo->name() << std::endl;
#endif
           }

#if PBG_TYPEMAP_DEBUG
          if (python_wrapper) {
              std::cerr << "  -> found match " << std::endl;
          } else {
              std::cerr << "  -> return fallback wrapper" << std::endl;
          }
#endif

           return python_wrapper? python_wrapper : fallback_wrapper;

#else // non gcc 3+ compilers can only match against explicitly registered classes, not hidden subclasses
           return fallback_wrapper;
#endif
       }
   }
};

}
''')
            else:
                code_sink.writeln('''
   PyTypeObject * lookup_wrapper(const std::type_info &cpp_type_info, PyTypeObject *fallback_wrapper)
   {

#if PBG_TYPEMAP_DEBUG
   std::cerr << "lookup_wrapper(this=" << this << ", type_name=" << cpp_type_info.name() << ")" << std::endl;
#endif

       PyTypeObject *python_wrapper = m_map[cpp_type_info.name()];
       return python_wrapper? python_wrapper : fallback_wrapper;
   }
};

}
''')


        if self.import_from_module:
            code_sink.writeln("\nextern pybindgen::TypeMap *_%s;\n" % self.typeid_map_name)
            code_sink.writeln("#define %s (*_%s)\n" % (self.typeid_map_name, self.typeid_map_name))
        else:
            code_sink.writeln("\nextern pybindgen::TypeMap %s;\n" % self.typeid_map_name)

    def _add_method_obj(self, method):
        """
        Add a method object to the class.  For internal use.

        :param method: a L{CppMethod} or L{Function} instance that can generate the method wrapper
        """
        if isinstance(method, CppMethod):
            name = method.mangled_name
        elif isinstance(method, function.Function):
            name = method.custom_name
            assert isinstance(method.parameters[0], CppClassParameterBase)
            assert method.parameters[0].cpp_class is self, \
                "expected first parameter to be of class %s, but it is of class %s" % \
                (self.full_name, method.parameters[0].cpp_class.full_name)
            method.parameters[0].take_value_from_python_self = True
            method.module = self.module
            method.is_virtual = False
            method.is_pure_virtual = False
            method.self_parameter_pystruct = self.pystruct
            method.visibility = 'public'
            method.force_parse = method.PARSE_TUPLE_AND_KEYWORDS
        else:
            raise TypeError

        method.class_ = self

        if method.visibility == 'protected' and not method.is_virtual:
            helper_class = self.get_helper_class()
            if helper_class is not None:
                parent_caller = CppVirtualMethodParentCaller(method)
                parent_caller.helper_class = helper_class
                parent_caller.main_wrapper = method
                helper_class.add_virtual_parent_caller(parent_caller)
        elif method.visibility == 'public':
            if name == '__call__': # needs special handling
                method.force_parse = method.PARSE_TUPLE_AND_KEYWORDS

            try:
                overload = self.methods[name]
            except KeyError:
                overload = CppOverloadedMethod(name)
                overload.pystruct = self.pystruct
                self.methods[name] = overload

            ## add it....
            try:
                utils.call_with_error_handling(overload.add, (method,), {}, method)
            except utils.SkipWrapper:
                return


            # Grr! I hate C++.  Overloading + inheritance = disaster!
            # So I ended up coding something which C++ does not in
            # fact support, but I feel bad to just throw away my good
            # code due to a C++ fault, so I am leaving here the code
            # disabled.  Maybe some future C++ version will come along
            # and fix this problem, who knows :P
            if 0:
                # due to a limitation of the pybindgen overloading
                # strategy, we need to re-wrap for this class all
                # methods with the same name and different signature
                # from parent classes.
                overload._compute_all_wrappers()
                if isinstance(method, CppMethod):
                    mro = self.get_mro()
                    next(mro) # skip 'self'
                    for cls in mro:
                        try:
                            parent_overload = cls.methods[name]
                        except KeyError:
                            continue
                        parent_overload._compute_all_wrappers()
                        for parent_method in parent_overload.all_wrappers:
                            already_exists = False
                            for existing_method in overload.all_wrappers:
                                if existing_method.matches_signature(parent_method):
                                    already_exists = True
                                    break
                            if not already_exists:
                                new_method = parent_method.clone()
                                new_method.class_ = self
                                overload.add(new_method)

        else:
            self.nonpublic_methods.append(method)
        if method.is_virtual:
            self._have_pure_virtual_methods = None
            helper_class = self.get_helper_class()
            if helper_class is not None:
                helper_class.add_virtual_method(method)

    def add_method(self, *args, **kwargs):
        """
        Add a method to the class. See the documentation for
        L{CppMethod.__init__} for information on accepted parameters.
        """

        ## <compat>
        if len(args) >= 1 and isinstance(args[0], CppMethod):
            meth = args[0]
            warnings.warn("add_method has changed API; see the API documentation",
                          DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
            if len(args) == 2:
                meth.custom_name = args[1]
            elif 'name' in kwargs:
                assert len(args) == 1
                meth.custom_name = kwargs['name']
            else:
                assert len(args) == 1
                assert len(kwargs) == 0
        elif len(args) >= 1 and isinstance(args[0], function.Function):
            meth = args[0]
            warnings.warn("add_method has changed API; see the API documentation",
                          DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
            if len(args) == 2:
                meth.custom_name = args[1]
            elif 'name' in kwargs:
                assert len(args) == 1
                meth.custom_name = kwargs['name']
            else:
                assert len(args) == 1
                assert len(kwargs) == 0
        ## </compat>

        else:
            try:
                meth = CppMethod(*args, **kwargs)
            except utils.SkipWrapper:
                if kwargs.get('is_virtual', False):
                    ## if the method was supposed to be virtual, this
                    ## is a very important fact that needs to be
                    ## recorded in the class, even if the method is
                    ## not wrapped.
                    method = CppDummyMethod(*args, **kwargs)
                    method.class_ = self
                    self._dummy_methods.append(method)
                    self._have_pure_virtual_methods = None
                    helper_class = self.get_helper_class()
                    if helper_class is not None:
                        helper_class.add_virtual_method(method)
                        if helper_class.cannot_be_constructed:
                            self.helper_class = None
                            self.helper_class_disabled = True

                return None
        self._add_method_obj(meth)
        return meth

    def add_function_as_method(self, *args, **kwargs):
        """
        Add a function as method of the class. See the documentation for
        L{Function.__init__} for information on accepted parameters.
        TODO: explain the implicit first function parameter
        """
        try:
            meth = function.Function(*args, **kwargs)
        except utils.SkipWrapper:
            return None
        self._add_method_obj(meth)
        return meth

    def add_custom_method_wrapper(self, *args, **kwargs):
        """
        Adds a custom method wrapper. See L{CustomCppMethodWrapper} for more information.
        """
        try:
            meth = CustomCppMethodWrapper(*args, **kwargs)
        except utils.SkipWrapper:
            return None
        self._add_method_obj(meth)
        return meth

    def set_helper_class_disabled(self, flag=True):
        self.helper_class_disabled = flag
        if flag:
            self.helper_class = None

    def set_cannot_be_constructed(self, reason):
        assert isinstance(reason, string_types)
        self.cannot_be_constructed = reason

    def _add_constructor_obj(self, wrapper):
        """
        Add a constructor to the class.

        :param wrapper: a CppConstructor instance
        """
        assert isinstance(wrapper, CppConstructor)
        wrapper.set_class(self)
        self.constructors.append(wrapper)
        if not wrapper.parameters:
            self.has_trivial_constructor = True # FIXME: I don't remember what is this used for anymore, maybe remove
        if len(wrapper.parameters) == 1 and isinstance(wrapper.parameters[0], (CppClassRefParameter, CppClassParameter)) \
                and wrapper.parameters[0].cpp_class is self and wrapper.visibility == 'public':
            self.has_copy_constructor = True

    def add_output_stream_operator(self):
        """
        Add str() support based on C++ output stream operator.

        Calling this method enables wrapping of an assumed to be defined operator function::

             std::ostream & operator << (std::ostream &, MyClass const &);

        The wrapper will be registered as an str() python operator,
        and will call the C++ operator function to convert the value
        to a string.
        """
        self.has_output_stream_operator = True
        self.module.add_include("<ostream>")
        self.module.add_include("<sstream>")

    def add_constructor(self, *args, **kwargs):
        """
        Add a constructor to the class. See the documentation for
        L{CppConstructor.__init__} for information on accepted parameters.
        """

        ## <compat>
        if len(args) == 1 and isinstance(args[0], CppConstructor):
            warnings.warn("add_constructor has changed API; see the API documentation",
                          DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
            constructor = args[0]
        elif len(args) == 1 and isinstance(args[0], function.Function):
            warnings.warn("add_constructor has changed API; see the API documentation",
                          DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
            func = args[0]
            constructor = CppFunctionAsConstructor(func.function_name, func.parameters)
            constructor.module = self.module
        ## </compat>
        else:
            try:
                constructor = CppConstructor(*args, **kwargs)
            except utils.SkipWrapper:
                return None
        self._add_constructor_obj(constructor)
        return constructor

    def add_copy_constructor(self):
        """
        Utility method to add a 'copy constructor' method to this class.
        """
        try:
            constructor = CppConstructor([self.ThisClassRefParameter("const %s &" % self.full_name,
                                                                     'ctor_arg')])
        except utils.SkipWrapper:
            return None
        self._add_constructor_obj(constructor)
        return constructor

    def add_function_as_constructor(self, *args, **kwargs):
        """
        Wrap a function that behaves as a constructor to the class. See the documentation for
        L{CppFunctionAsConstructor.__init__} for information on accepted parameters.
        """
        try:
            constructor = CppFunctionAsConstructor(*args, **kwargs)
        except utils.SkipWrapper:
            return None
        self._add_constructor_obj(constructor)
        return constructor

    def add_static_attribute(self, name, value_type, is_const=False):
        """
        :param value_type: a ReturnValue object
        :param name: attribute name (i.e. the name of the class member variable)
        :param is_const: True if the attribute is const, i.e. cannot be modified
        """

        ## backward compatibility check
        if isinstance(value_type, string_types) and isinstance(name, ReturnValue):
            warnings.warn("add_static_attribute has changed API; see the API documentation (but trying to correct...)",
                          DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
            value_type, name = name, value_type

        try:
            value_type = utils.eval_retval(value_type, None)
        except utils.SkipWrapper:
            return

        assert isinstance(value_type, ReturnValue)
        getter = CppStaticAttributeGetter(value_type, self, name)
        getter.stack_where_defined = traceback.extract_stack()
        if is_const:
            setter = None
        else:
            setter = CppStaticAttributeSetter(value_type, self, name)
            setter.stack_where_defined = traceback.extract_stack()
        self.static_attributes.add_attribute(name, getter, setter)

    def add_custom_instance_attribute(self, name, value_type, getter, is_const=False, setter=None, custom_name=None,
                                      getter_template_parameters=[],
                                      setter_template_parameters=[]):
        """
        :param value_type: a ReturnValue object
        :param name: attribute name (i.e. the name of the class member variable)
        :param is_const: True if the attribute is const, i.e. cannot be modified
        :param getter: None, or name of a method of this class used to get the value
        :param setter: None, or name of a method of this class used to set the value
        :param getter_template_parameters: optional list of template parameters for getter function
        :param setter_template_parameters: optional list of template parameters for setter function
        """

        ## backward compatibility check
        if isinstance(value_type, string_types) and isinstance(name, ReturnValue):
            warnings.warn("add_custom_instance_attribute has changed API; see the API documentation (but trying to correct...)",
                          DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
            value_type, name = name, value_type

        try:
            value_type = utils.eval_retval(value_type, None)
        except utils.SkipWrapper:
            return

        assert isinstance(value_type, ReturnValue)
        getter_wrapper = CppCustomInstanceAttributeGetter(value_type, self, name, getter=getter,
                                                          template_parameters = getter_template_parameters)
        getter_wrapper.stack_where_defined = traceback.extract_stack()
        if is_const:
            setter_wrapper = None
            assert setter is None
        else:
            setter_wrapper = CppCustomInstanceAttributeSetter(value_type, self, name, setter=setter,
                                                              template_parameters = setter_template_parameters)
            setter_wrapper.stack_where_defined = traceback.extract_stack()
        self.instance_attributes.add_attribute(name, getter_wrapper, setter_wrapper, custom_name)

    def add_instance_attribute(self, name, value_type, is_const=False,
                               getter=None, setter=None, custom_name=None):
        """
        :param value_type: a ReturnValue object
        :param name: attribute name (i.e. the name of the class member variable)
        :param is_const: True if the attribute is const, i.e. cannot be modified
        :param getter: None, or name of a method of this class used to get the value
        :param setter: None, or name of a method of this class used to set the value
        """

        ## backward compatibility check
        if isinstance(value_type, string_types) and isinstance(name, ReturnValue):
            warnings.warn("add_static_attribute has changed API; see the API documentation (but trying to correct...)",
                          DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
            value_type, name = name, value_type

        try:
            value_type = utils.eval_retval(value_type, None)
        except utils.SkipWrapper:
            return

        assert isinstance(value_type, ReturnValue)
        getter_wrapper = CppInstanceAttributeGetter(value_type, self, name, getter=getter)
        getter_wrapper.stack_where_defined = traceback.extract_stack()
        if is_const:
            setter_wrapper = None
            assert setter is None
        else:
            setter_wrapper = CppInstanceAttributeSetter(value_type, self, name, setter=setter)
            setter_wrapper.stack_where_defined = traceback.extract_stack()
        self.instance_attributes.add_attribute(name, getter_wrapper, setter_wrapper, custom_name)


    def _inherit_helper_class_parent_virtuals(self):
        """
        Given a class containing a helper class, add all virtual
        methods from the all parent classes of this class.
        """
        mro = self.get_mro()
        next(mro) # skip 'self'
        for cls in mro:
            for method in cls.get_all_methods():
                if not method.is_virtual:
                    continue
                method = method.clone()
                self.helper_class.add_virtual_method(method)

    def _get_wrapper_registry(self):
        # there is one wrapper registry object per root class only,
        # which is used for all subclasses.
        if self.parent is None:
            if self._wrapper_registry is None:
                self._wrapper_registry = settings.wrapper_registry(self.pystruct)
            return self._wrapper_registry
        else:
            return self.parent._get_wrapper_registry()
    wrapper_registry = property(_get_wrapper_registry)

    def generate_forward_declarations(self, code_sink, module):
        """
        Generates forward declarations for the instance and type
        structures.
        """

        if self.memory_policy is not None:
            pointer_type = self.memory_policy.get_pointer_type(self.full_name)
        else:
            pointer_type = self.full_name + " *"

        if self.allow_subclassing:
            code_sink.writeln('''
typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
    %sobj;
    PyObject *inst_dict;
    PyBindGenWrapperFlags flags:8;
} %s;
    ''' % (pointer_type, self.pystruct))

        else:

            code_sink.writeln('''
typedef struct {
    PyObject_HEAD
    %sobj;
    PyBindGenWrapperFlags flags:8;
} %s;
    ''' % (pointer_type, self.pystruct))

        code_sink.writeln()

        if self.import_from_module:
            code_sink.writeln('extern PyTypeObject *_%s;' % (self.pytypestruct,))
            code_sink.writeln('#define %s (*_%s)' % (self.pytypestruct, self.pytypestruct))
        else:
            code_sink.writeln('extern PyTypeObject %s;' % (self.pytypestruct,))
            if not self.static_attributes.empty():
                code_sink.writeln('extern PyTypeObject Py%s_Type;' % (self.metaclass_name,))

        code_sink.writeln()

        if self.helper_class is not None:
            self._inherit_helper_class_parent_virtuals()
            for hook in self._get_all_helper_class_hooks():
                hook(self.helper_class)
            self.helper_class.generate_forward_declarations(code_sink)
            if self.helper_class.cannot_be_constructed:
                self.helper_class = None
                self.helper_class_disabled = True
        if self.have_pure_virtual_methods and self.helper_class is None:
            self.cannot_be_constructed = "have pure virtual methods but no helper class"

        if self.typeid_map_name is not None:
            self._generate_typeid_map(code_sink, module)

        if self.container_traits is not None:
            self.container_traits.generate_forward_declarations(code_sink, module)

        if self.parent is None:
            self.wrapper_registry.generate_forward_declarations(code_sink, module, self.import_from_module)

    def get_python_name(self):
        if self.template_parameters:
            if self.custom_name is None:
                class_python_name = self.mangled_name
            else:
                class_python_name = self.custom_name
        else:
            if self.custom_name is None:
                class_python_name = self.name
            else:
                class_python_name = self.custom_name
        return class_python_name

    def _generate_import_from_module(self, code_sink, module):
        if module.parent is None:
            error_retcode = "MOD_ERROR"
        else:
            error_retcode = "NULL"

        # TODO: skip this step if the requested typestructure is never used
        if ' named ' in self.import_from_module:
            module_name, type_name = self.import_from_module.split(" named ")
        else:
            module_name, type_name = self.import_from_module, self.name
        code_sink.writeln("PyTypeObject *_%s;" % self.pytypestruct)
        module.after_init.write_code("/* Import the %r class from module %r */" % (self.full_name, self.import_from_module))
        module.after_init.write_code("{"); module.after_init.indent()
        module.after_init.write_code("PyObject *module = PyImport_ImportModule((char*) \"%s\");" % module_name)
        module.after_init.write_code(
            "if (module == NULL) {\n"
            "    return %s;\n"
            "}" % (error_retcode,))

        module.after_init.write_code("_%s = (PyTypeObject*) PyObject_GetAttrString(module, (char*) \"%s\");\n"
                                     % (self.pytypestruct, self.get_python_name()))
        module.after_init.write_code("if (PyErr_Occurred()) PyErr_Clear();")

        if self.typeid_map_name is not None:
            code_sink.writeln("pybindgen::TypeMap *_%s;" % self.typeid_map_name)
            module.after_init.write_code("/* Import the %r class type map from module %r */" % (self.full_name, self.import_from_module))
            module.after_init.write_code("PyObject *_cobj = PyObject_GetAttrString(module, (char*) \"_%s\");"
                                         % (self.typeid_map_name))
            module.after_init.write_code("if (_cobj == NULL) {\n"
                                         "    _%s = new pybindgen::TypeMap;\n"
                                         "    PyErr_Clear();\n"
                                         "} else {\n"
                                         "    _%s = reinterpret_cast<pybindgen::TypeMap*> (PyCObject_AsVoidPtr (_cobj));\n"
                                         "    Py_DECREF(_cobj);\n"
                                         "}"
                                         % (self.typeid_map_name, self.typeid_map_name))

        if self.parent is None:
            self.wrapper_registry.generate_import(code_sink, module.after_init, "module")

        module.after_init.unindent(); module.after_init.write_code("}")

        if self.helper_class is not None:
            self.helper_class.generate(code_sink)


    def generate(self, code_sink, module):
        """Generates the class to a code sink"""

        if self.import_from_module:
            self._generate_import_from_module(code_sink, module)
            return # .......................... RETURN

        if self.typeid_map_name is not None:
            code_sink.writeln("\npybindgen::TypeMap %s;\n" % self.typeid_map_name)
            module.after_init.write_code("PyModule_AddObject(m, (char *) \"_%s\", PyCObject_FromVoidPtr(&%s, NULL));"
                                         % (self.typeid_map_name, self.typeid_map_name))

        if self.automatic_type_narrowing:
            self._register_typeid(module)

        if self.parent is None:
            self.wrapper_registry.generate(code_sink, module)

        if self.helper_class is not None:
            parent_caller_methods = self.helper_class.generate(code_sink)
        else:
            parent_caller_methods = []

        ## generate getsets
        instance_getsets = self.instance_attributes.generate(code_sink)
        self.slots.setdefault("tp_getset", instance_getsets)
        static_getsets = self.static_attributes.generate(code_sink)

        ## --- register the class type in the module ---
        module.after_init.write_code("/* Register the '%s' class */" % self.full_name)

        ## generate a metaclass if needed
        if static_getsets == '0':
            metaclass = None
        else:
            if self.parent is None:
                parent_typestruct = 'PyBaseObject_Type'
            else:
                parent_typestruct = self.parent.pytypestruct
            metaclass = PyMetaclass(self.metaclass_name,
                                    "Py_TYPE(&%s)" % parent_typestruct,
                                    self.static_attributes)
            metaclass.generate(code_sink, module)

        if self.parent is not None:
            assert isinstance(self.parent, CppClass)
            module.after_init.write_code('%s.tp_base = &%s;' %
                                         (self.pytypestruct, self.parent.pytypestruct))
            if len(self.bases) > 1:
                module.after_init.write_code('%s.tp_bases = PyTuple_New(%i);' % (self.pytypestruct, len(self.bases),))
                for basenum, base in enumerate(self.bases):
                    module.after_init.write_code('    Py_INCREF((PyObject *) &%s);' % (base.pytypestruct,))
                    module.after_init.write_code('    PyTuple_SET_ITEM(%s.tp_bases, %i, (PyObject *) &%s);'
                                                 % (self.pytypestruct, basenum, base.pytypestruct))

        if metaclass is not None:
            module.after_init.write_code('Py_TYPE(&%s) = &%s;' %
                                         (self.pytypestruct, metaclass.pytypestruct))

        module.after_init.write_error_check('PyType_Ready(&%s)'
                                          % (self.pytypestruct,))

        class_python_name = self.get_python_name()

        if self.outer_class is None:
            module.after_init.write_code(
                'PyModule_AddObject(m, (char *) \"%s\", (PyObject *) &%s);' % (
                class_python_name, self.pytypestruct))
        else:
            module.after_init.write_code(
                'PyDict_SetItemString((PyObject*) %s.tp_dict, (char *) \"%s\", (PyObject *) &%s);' % (
                self.outer_class.pytypestruct, class_python_name, self.pytypestruct))

        have_constructor = self._generate_constructor(code_sink)

        self._generate_methods(code_sink, parent_caller_methods)

        if self.allow_subclassing:
            self._generate_gc_methods(code_sink)

        self._generate_destructor(code_sink, have_constructor)

        if self.has_output_stream_operator:
            self._generate_str(code_sink)

        #self._generate_tp_hash(code_sink)
        #self._generate_tp_compare(code_sink)

        #if self.slots.get("tp_hash", "NULL") == "NULL":
        #    self.slots["tp_hash"] = self._generate_tp_hash(code_sink)

        if self.slots.get("tp_richcompare", "NULL") == "NULL" and self.binary_comparison_operators:
            self.slots["tp_richcompare"] = self._generate_tp_richcompare(code_sink)

        if self.binary_numeric_operators or self.inplace_numeric_operators:
            self.slots["tp_as_number"] = self._generate_number_methods(code_sink)

        if self.have_sequence_methods():
            self.slots["tp_as_sequence"] = self._generate_sequence_methods(code_sink)

        if self.container_traits is not None:
            self.container_traits.generate(code_sink, module)

        self._generate_type_structure(code_sink, self.docstring)

    def _generate_number_methods(self, code_sink):
        number_methods_var_name = "%s__py_number_methods" % (self.mangled_full_name,)

        pynumbermethods = PyNumberMethods()
        pynumbermethods.slots['variable'] = number_methods_var_name

        # iterate over all types and request generation of the
        # convertion functions for that type (so that those functions
        # are not generated in the middle of one of the wrappers we
        # are about to generate)
        root_module = self.module.get_root()
        for dummy_op_symbol, op_types in self.binary_numeric_operators.items():
            for (retval, left, right) in op_types:
                get_c_to_python_converter(retval, root_module, code_sink)
                get_python_to_c_converter(left, root_module, code_sink)
                get_python_to_c_converter(right, root_module, code_sink)

        for dummy_op_symbol, op_types in self.inplace_numeric_operators.items():
            for (retval, left, right) in op_types:
                get_python_to_c_converter(left, root_module, code_sink)
                get_python_to_c_converter(right, root_module, code_sink)
                get_c_to_python_converter(retval, root_module, code_sink)

        for dummy_op_symbol, op_types in self.unary_numeric_operators.items():
            for (retval, left) in op_types:
                get_c_to_python_converter(retval, root_module, code_sink)
                get_python_to_c_converter(left, root_module, code_sink)

        def try_wrap_operator(op_symbol, slot_name):
            if op_symbol in self.binary_numeric_operators:
                op_types = self.binary_numeric_operators[op_symbol]
            elif op_symbol in self.inplace_numeric_operators:
                op_types = self.inplace_numeric_operators[op_symbol]
            else:
                return

            wrapper_name = "%s__%s" % (self.mangled_full_name, slot_name)
            pynumbermethods.slots[slot_name] = wrapper_name
            code_sink.writeln(("static PyObject*\n"
                               "%s (PyObject *py_left, PyObject *py_right)\n"
                               "{") % wrapper_name)
            code_sink.indent()
            for (retval, left, right) in op_types:
                retval_converter, retval_name = get_c_to_python_converter(retval, root_module, code_sink)
                left_converter, left_name = get_python_to_c_converter(left, root_module, code_sink)
                right_converter, right_name = get_python_to_c_converter(right, root_module, code_sink)

                code_sink.writeln("{")
                code_sink.indent()

                code_sink.writeln("%s left;" % left_name)
                code_sink.writeln("%s right;" % right_name)

                code_sink.writeln("if (%s(py_left, &left) && %s(py_right, &right)) {" % (left_converter, right_converter))
                code_sink.indent()
                code_sink.writeln("%s result = (left %s right);" % (retval_name, op_symbol))
                code_sink.writeln("return %s(&result);" % retval_converter)
                code_sink.unindent()
                code_sink.writeln("}")
                code_sink.writeln("PyErr_Clear();")

                code_sink.unindent()
                code_sink.writeln("}")

            code_sink.writeln("Py_INCREF(Py_NotImplemented);")
            code_sink.writeln("return Py_NotImplemented;")
            code_sink.unindent()
            code_sink.writeln("}")

        def try_wrap_unary_operator(op_symbol, slot_name):
            if op_symbol in self.unary_numeric_operators:
                op_types = self.unary_numeric_operators[op_symbol]
            else:
                return

            wrapper_name = "%s__%s" % (self.mangled_full_name, slot_name)
            pynumbermethods.slots[slot_name] = wrapper_name
            code_sink.writeln(("static PyObject*\n"
                               "%s (PyObject *py_self)\n"
                               "{") % wrapper_name)
            code_sink.indent()
            for (retval, left) in op_types:
                retval_converter, retval_name = get_c_to_python_converter(retval, root_module, code_sink)
                left_converter, left_name = get_python_to_c_converter(left, root_module, code_sink)

                code_sink.writeln("{")
                code_sink.indent()

                code_sink.writeln("%s self;" % left_name)

                code_sink.writeln("if (%s(py_self, &self)) {" % (left_converter))
                code_sink.indent()
                code_sink.writeln("%s result = %s(self);" % (retval_name, op_symbol))
                code_sink.writeln("return %s(&result);" % retval_converter)
                code_sink.unindent()
                code_sink.writeln("}")
                code_sink.writeln("PyErr_Clear();")

                code_sink.unindent()
                code_sink.writeln("}")

            code_sink.writeln("Py_INCREF(Py_NotImplemented);")
            code_sink.writeln("return Py_NotImplemented;")
            code_sink.unindent()
            code_sink.writeln("}")

        try_wrap_operator('+', 'nb_add')
        try_wrap_operator('-', 'nb_subtract')
        try_wrap_operator('*', 'nb_multiply')
        try_wrap_operator('/', 'nb_divide')

        try_wrap_operator('+=', 'nb_inplace_add')
        try_wrap_operator('-=', 'nb_inplace_subtract')
        try_wrap_operator('*=', 'nb_inplace_multiply')
        try_wrap_operator('/=', 'nb_inplace_divide')

        try_wrap_unary_operator('-', 'nb_negative')

        pynumbermethods.generate(code_sink)
        return '&' + number_methods_var_name

    def _generate_sequence_methods(self, code_sink):
        sequence_methods_var_name = "%s__py_sequence_methods" % (self.mangled_full_name,)

        pysequencemethods = PySequenceMethods()
        pysequencemethods.slots['variable'] = sequence_methods_var_name

        root_module = self.module.get_root()
        self_converter = root_module.generate_python_to_c_type_converter(self.ThisClassReturn(self.full_name), code_sink)

        def try_wrap_sequence_method(py_name, slot_name):
            if py_name in self.methods:
                numwraps = len(self.methods[py_name].wrappers)
                some_wrapper_is_function = max([isinstance(x, function.Function) for x in self.methods[py_name].wrappers])
                meth_wrapper_actual_name = self.methods[py_name].wrapper_actual_name
                wrapper_name = "%s__%s" % (self.mangled_full_name, slot_name)
                pysequencemethods.slots[slot_name] = wrapper_name
                if py_name == "__len__" and (numwraps > 1 or some_wrapper_is_function):
                    template = pysequencemethods.FUNCTION_TEMPLATES[slot_name + "_ARGS"]
                else:
                    template = pysequencemethods.FUNCTION_TEMPLATES[slot_name]
                code_sink.writeln(template % {'wrapper_name'   : wrapper_name,
                                              'py_struct'      : self._pystruct,
                                              'method_name'    : meth_wrapper_actual_name})
                return

        for py_name in self.valid_sequence_methods:
            slot_name = self.valid_sequence_methods[py_name]
            try_wrap_sequence_method(py_name, slot_name)

        pysequencemethods.generate(code_sink)
        return '&' + sequence_methods_var_name

    def have_sequence_methods(self):
        """Determine if this object has sequence methods registered."""
        for x in self.valid_sequence_methods:
            if x in self.methods:
                return True
        return False

    def _generate_type_structure(self, code_sink, docstring):
        """generate the type structure"""
        self.slots.setdefault("tp_basicsize",
                              "sizeof(%s)" % (self.pystruct,))
        tp_flags = set(['Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT'])
        if self.allow_subclassing:
            tp_flags.add("Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC")
            tp_flags.add("Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE")
            self.slots.setdefault("tp_dictoffset",
                                  "offsetof(%s, inst_dict)" % self.pystruct)
        else:
            self.slots.setdefault("tp_dictoffset", "0")
        if self.binary_numeric_operators:
            tp_flags.add("Py_TPFLAGS_CHECKTYPES")
        self.slots.setdefault("tp_flags", '|'.join(tp_flags))

        if docstring is None:
            docstring = self.generate_docstring()

        self.slots.setdefault("tp_doc", (docstring is None and 'NULL'
                                         or "\"%s\"" % (docstring,)))
        dict_ = self.slots
        dict_.setdefault("typestruct", self.pytypestruct)

        if self.outer_class is None:
            mod_path = self._module.get_module_path()
            mod_path.append(self.mangled_name)
            dict_.setdefault("tp_name", '.'.join(mod_path))
        else:
            dict_.setdefault("tp_name", '%s.%s' % (self.outer_class.slots['tp_name'], self.name))

        ## tp_call support
        try:
            call_method = self.methods['__call__']
        except KeyError:
            pass
        else:
            dict_.setdefault("tp_call", call_method.wrapper_actual_name)

        self.pytype.generate(code_sink)

    def generate_docstring(self):
        name = self.get_python_name()
        return "\\n".join(sorted([c.generate_docstring(name) for c in self.constructors],
                                 key=len, reverse=True))

    def _generate_constructor(self, code_sink):
        """generate the constructor, if any"""
        have_constructor = True
        if self.constructors and ((not self.cannot_be_constructed) or self.helper_class is not None
                                  and not self.helper_class.cannot_be_constructed):
            code_sink.writeln()
            overload = CppOverloadedConstructor(None)
            self.constructors_overload = overload
            overload.pystruct = self.pystruct
            for constructor in self.constructors:
                try:
                    overload.add(constructor)
                except CodegenErrorBase:
                    continue
            if overload.wrappers:
                try:
                    overload.generate(code_sink)
                except utils.SkipWrapper:
                    constructor = None
                    have_constructor = False
                else:
                    constructor = overload.wrapper_actual_name
                    code_sink.writeln()
            else:
                constructor = None
                have_constructor = False
        else:
            ## In C++, and unlike Python, constructors with
            ## parameters are not automatically inheritted by
            ## subclasses.  We must generate a 'no constructor'
            ## tp_init to prevent this type from inheriting a
            ## tp_init that will allocate an instance of the
            ## parent class instead of this class.
            code_sink.writeln()
            wrapper = CppNoConstructor(self.cannot_be_constructed)
            wrapper.generate(code_sink, self)
            constructor = wrapper.wrapper_actual_name
            have_constructor = False
            code_sink.writeln()

        self.slots.setdefault("tp_init", (constructor is None and "NULL"
                                          or constructor))
        return have_constructor

    def _generate_copy_method(self, code_sink):
        construct_name = self.get_construct_name()
        copy_wrapper_name = '_wrap_%s__copy__' % self.pystruct
        code_sink.writeln('''
static PyObject*\n%s(%s *self, PyObject *PYBINDGEN_UNUSED(_args))
{
''' % (copy_wrapper_name, self.pystruct))
        code_sink.indent()

        declarations = DeclarationsScope()
        code_block = CodeBlock("return NULL;", declarations)

        py_copy = declarations.declare_variable("%s*" % self.pystruct, "py_copy")
        self.write_allocate_pystruct(code_block, py_copy)
        code_block.write_code("%s->obj = new %s(*self->obj);" % (py_copy, construct_name))
        if self.allow_subclassing:
            code_block.write_code("%s->inst_dict = NULL;" % py_copy)
        code_block.write_code("%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_NONE;" % py_copy)

        self.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(code_block, py_copy, "%s->obj" % py_copy)

        code_block.write_code("return (PyObject*) %s;" % py_copy)

        declarations.get_code_sink().flush_to(code_sink)

        code_block.write_cleanup()
        code_block.sink.flush_to(code_sink)

        code_sink.unindent()
        code_sink.writeln("}")
        code_sink.writeln()
        return copy_wrapper_name

    def _generate_MI_parent_methods(self, code_sink):
        methods = {}
        mro = self.get_mro()
        next(mro)
        for base in mro:
            for method_name, parent_overload in base.methods.items():

                # skip methods registered via special type slots, not method table
                if method_name in (['__call__'] + list(self.valid_sequence_methods)):
                    continue

                try:
                    overload = methods[method_name]
                except KeyError:
                    overload = CppOverloadedMethod(method_name)
                    overload.pystruct = self.pystruct
                    methods[method_name] = overload

                for parent_wrapper in parent_overload.wrappers:

                    if parent_wrapper.visibility != 'public':
                        continue

                    # the method may have been re-defined as private in our class
                    private = False
                    for leaf_wrapper in self.nonpublic_methods:
                        if leaf_wrapper.matches_signature(parent_wrapper):
                            private = True
                            break
                    if private:
                        continue

                    # the method may have already been wrapped in our class
                    already_wrapped = False
                    try:
                        overload = self.methods[method_name]
                    except KeyError:
                        pass
                    else:
                        for leaf_wrapper in overload.wrappers:
                            if leaf_wrapper.matches_signature(parent_wrapper):
                                already_wrapped = True
                                break
                    if already_wrapped:
                        continue

                    wrapper = parent_wrapper.clone()
                    wrapper.original_class = base
                    wrapper.class_ = self
                    overload.add(wrapper)

        method_defs = []
        for method_name, overload in methods.items():
            if not overload.wrappers:
                continue

            classes = []
            for wrapper in overload.wrappers:
                if wrapper.original_class not in classes:
                    classes.append(wrapper.original_class)
            if len(classes) > 1:
                continue # overloading with multiple base classes is just too confusing

            try:
                utils.call_with_error_handling(overload.generate, (code_sink,), {}, overload)
            except utils.SkipWrapper:
                continue
            code_sink.writeln()
            method_defs.append(overload.get_py_method_def(method_name))
        return method_defs

    def _generate_methods(self, code_sink, parent_caller_methods):
        """generate the method wrappers"""
        method_defs = []
        for meth_name, overload in self.methods.items():
            code_sink.writeln()
            #overload.generate(code_sink)
            try:
                utils.call_with_error_handling(overload.generate, (code_sink,), {}, overload)
            except utils.SkipWrapper:
                continue
            # skip methods registered via special type slots, not method table
            if meth_name not in (['__call__'] + list(self.valid_sequence_methods)):
                method_defs.append(overload.get_py_method_def(meth_name))
            code_sink.writeln()
        method_defs.extend(parent_caller_methods)

        if len(self.bases) > 1: # https://bugs.launchpad.net/pybindgen/+bug/563786
            method_defs.extend(self._generate_MI_parent_methods(code_sink))

        if self.has_copy_constructor:
            try:
                copy_wrapper_name = utils.call_with_error_handling(self._generate_copy_method, (code_sink,), {}, self)
            except utils.SkipWrapper:
                pass
            else:
                method_defs.append('{(char *) "__copy__", (PyCFunction) %s, METH_NOARGS, NULL},' % copy_wrapper_name)

        ## generate the method table
        code_sink.writeln("static PyMethodDef %s_methods[] = {" % (self.pystruct,))
        code_sink.indent()
        for methdef in method_defs:
            code_sink.writeln(methdef)
        code_sink.writeln("{NULL, NULL, 0, NULL}")
        code_sink.unindent()
        code_sink.writeln("};")
        self.slots.setdefault("tp_methods", "%s_methods" % (self.pystruct,))

    def _get_delete_code(self):
        if self.is_singleton:
            delete_code = ''
        else:
            if self.memory_policy is not None:
                delete_code = self.memory_policy.get_delete_code(self)
            else:
                if self.incomplete_type:
                    raise CodeGenerationError("Cannot finish generating class %s: "
                                              "type is incomplete, but no free/unref_function defined"
                                              % self.full_name)
                if self.destructor_visibility == 'public':
                    delete_code = ("    %s *tmp = self->obj;\n"
                                   "    self->obj = NULL;\n"
                                   "    if (!(self->flags&PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_OBJECT_NOT_OWNED)) {\n"
                                   "        delete tmp;\n"
                                   "    }" % (self.full_name,))
                else:
                    delete_code = ("    self->obj = NULL;\n")
        return delete_code

    def _generate_gc_methods(self, code_sink):
        """Generate tp_clear and tp_traverse"""

        ## --- tp_clear ---
        tp_clear_function_name = "%s__tp_clear" % (self.pystruct,)
        self.slots.setdefault("tp_clear", tp_clear_function_name )
        delete_code = self._get_delete_code()
        code_sink.writeln(r'''
static void
%s(%s *self)
{
    Py_CLEAR(self->inst_dict);
    %s
}
''' % (tp_clear_function_name, self.pystruct, delete_code))

        ## --- tp_traverse ---
        tp_traverse_function_name = "%s__tp_traverse" % (self.pystruct,)
        self.slots.setdefault("tp_traverse", tp_traverse_function_name )

        if self.helper_class is None:
            visit_self = ''
        else:
            if not isinstance(self.memory_policy, ReferenceCountingMethodsPolicy) or self.memory_policy.peekref_method is None:
                peekref_code = ''
            else:
                peekref_code = " && self->obj->%s() == 1" % self.memory_policy.peekref_method
            visit_self = '''
    if (self->obj && typeid(*self->obj).name() == typeid(%s).name() %s)
        Py_VISIT((PyObject *) self);
''' % (self.helper_class.name, peekref_code)

        code_sink.writeln(r'''
static int
%s(%s *self, visitproc visit, void *arg)
{
    Py_VISIT(self->inst_dict);
    %s
    return 0;
}
''' % (tp_traverse_function_name, self.pystruct, visit_self))

    def _generate_str(self, code_sink):
        """Generate a tp_str function and register it in the type"""

        tp_str_function_name = "_wrap_%s__tp_str" % (self.pystruct,)
        self.slots.setdefault("tp_str", tp_str_function_name )

        code_sink.writeln('''

static PyObject *
%s(%s *self)
{
    std::ostringstream oss;
    oss << *self->obj;
    return PyUnicode_FromString(oss.str ().c_str ());
}

''' % (tp_str_function_name, self.pystruct))

    def _generate_tp_hash(self, code_sink):
        """generates a tp_hash function, which returns a hash of the self->obj pointer"""

        tp_hash_function_name = "_wrap_%s__tp_hash" % (self.pystruct,)
        self.slots.setdefault("tp_hash", tp_hash_function_name )

        code_sink.writeln('''

static long
%s(%s *self)
{
    return (long) self->obj;
}

''' % (tp_hash_function_name, self.pystruct))
        return tp_hash_function_name

    def _generate_tp_compare(self, code_sink):
        """generates a tp_compare function, which compares the ->obj pointers"""

        tp_compare_function_name = "_wrap_%s__tp_compare" % (self.pystruct,)
        self.slots.setdefault("tp_compare", tp_compare_function_name )

        code_sink.writeln('''

static int
%s(%s *self, %s *other)
{
    if (self->obj == other->obj) return 0;
    if (self->obj > other->obj)  return -1;
    return 1;
}

''' % (tp_compare_function_name, self.pystruct, self.pystruct))


    def _generate_destructor(self, code_sink, have_constructor):
        """Generate a tp_dealloc function and register it in the type"""

        ## don't generate destructor if overridden by user
        if "tp_dealloc" in self.slots:
            return

        tp_dealloc_function_name = "_wrap_%s__tp_dealloc" % (self.pystruct,)
        code_sink.writeln(r'''
static void
%s(%s *self)
{''' % (tp_dealloc_function_name, self.pystruct))
        code_sink.indent()

        code_block = CodeBlock("PyErr_Print(); return;", DeclarationsScope())

        if self.memory_policy is not None:
            self.wrapper_registry.write_unregister_wrapper(code_block, 'self', self.memory_policy.get_pointer_to_void_name('self->obj'))
        else:
            self.wrapper_registry.write_unregister_wrapper(code_block, 'self', 'self->obj')

        if self.allow_subclassing:
            code_block.write_code("%s(self);" % self.slots["tp_clear"])
        else:
            code_block.write_code(self._get_delete_code())

        code_block.write_code('Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject*)self);')

        code_block.write_cleanup()

        code_block.declarations.get_code_sink().flush_to(code_sink)
        code_block.sink.flush_to(code_sink)

        code_sink.unindent()
        code_sink.writeln('}\n')

        self.slots.setdefault("tp_dealloc", tp_dealloc_function_name )


    def _generate_tp_richcompare(self, code_sink):
        tp_richcompare_function_name = "_wrap_%s__tp_richcompare" % (self.pystruct,)

        code_sink.writeln("static PyObject*\n%s (%s *self, %s *other, int opid)"
                          % (tp_richcompare_function_name, self.pystruct, self.pystruct))
        code_sink.writeln("{")
        code_sink.indent()

        code_sink.writeln("""
if (!PyObject_IsInstance((PyObject*) other, (PyObject*) &%s)) {
    Py_INCREF(Py_NotImplemented);
    return Py_NotImplemented;
}""" % self.pytypestruct)

        code_sink.writeln("switch (opid)\n{")

        def wrap_operator(name, opid_code):
            code_sink.writeln("case %s:" % opid_code)
            code_sink.indent()
            if name in self.binary_comparison_operators:
                code_sink.writeln("if (*self->obj %(OP)s *other->obj) {\n"
                                  "    Py_INCREF(Py_True);\n"
                                  "    return Py_True;\n"
                                  "} else {\n"
                                  "    Py_INCREF(Py_False);\n"
                                  "    return Py_False;\n"
                                  "}" % dict(OP=name))
            else:
                code_sink.writeln("Py_INCREF(Py_NotImplemented);\n"
                                  "return Py_NotImplemented;")
            code_sink.unindent()

        wrap_operator('<', 'Py_LT')
        wrap_operator('<=', 'Py_LE')
        wrap_operator('==', 'Py_EQ')
        wrap_operator('!=', 'Py_NE')
        wrap_operator('>=', 'Py_GE')
        wrap_operator('>', 'Py_GT')

        code_sink.writeln("} /* closes switch (opid) */")

        code_sink.writeln("Py_INCREF(Py_NotImplemented);\n"
                          "return Py_NotImplemented;")

        code_sink.unindent()
        code_sink.writeln("}\n")

        return tp_richcompare_function_name

    def generate_typedef(self, module, alias):
        """
        Generates the appropriate Module code to register the class
        with a new name in that module (typedef alias).
        """
        module.after_init.write_code(
            'PyModule_AddObject(m, (char *) \"%s\", (PyObject *) &%s);' % (
                alias, self.pytypestruct))

    def write_allocate_pystruct(self, code_block, lvalue, wrapper_type=None):
        """
        Generates code to allocate a python wrapper structure, using
        PyObject_New or PyObject_GC_New, plus some additional strcture
        initialization that may be needed.
        """
        if self.allow_subclassing:
            new_func = 'PyObject_GC_New'
        else:
            new_func = 'PyObject_New'
        if wrapper_type is None:
            wrapper_type = '&'+self.pytypestruct
        code_block.write_code("%s = %s(%s, %s);" %
                              (lvalue, new_func, self.pystruct, wrapper_type))
        if self.allow_subclassing:
            code_block.write_code(
                "%s->inst_dict = NULL;" % (lvalue,))
        if self.memory_policy is not None:
            code_block.write_code(self.memory_policy.get_pystruct_init_code(self, lvalue))


# from pybindgen.cppclass_typehandlers import CppClassParameter, CppClassRefParameter, \
#     CppClassReturnValue, CppClassRefReturnValue, CppClassPtrParameter, CppClassPtrReturnValue, CppClassParameterBase, \
#     CppClassSharedPtrParameter, CppClassSharedPtrReturnValue

#from pybindgen.function import function

from pybindgen.cppmethod import CppMethod, CppConstructor, CppNoConstructor, CppFunctionAsConstructor, \
    CppOverloadedMethod, CppOverloadedConstructor, \
    CppVirtualMethodParentCaller, CppVirtualMethodProxy, CustomCppMethodWrapper, \
    CppDummyMethod





def common_shared_object_return(value, py_name, cpp_class, code_block,
                                type_traits, caller_owns_return,
                                reference_existing_object, type_is_pointer, caller_manages_return=True):

    if type_is_pointer:
        value_value = '(*%s)' % value
        value_ptr = value
    else:
        value_ptr = '(&%s)' % value
        value_value = value
    def write_create_new_wrapper():
        """Code path that creates a new wrapper for the returned object"""

        ## Find out what Python wrapper to use, in case
        ## automatic_type_narrowing is active and we are not forced to
        ## make a copy of the object
        if (cpp_class.automatic_type_narrowing
            and (caller_owns_return or isinstance(cpp_class.memory_policy,
                                                  ReferenceCountingPolicy))):

            typeid_map_name = cpp_class.get_type_narrowing_root().typeid_map_name
            wrapper_type = code_block.declare_variable(
                'PyTypeObject*', 'wrapper_type', '0')
            code_block.write_code(
                '%s = %s.lookup_wrapper(typeid(%s), &%s);'
                % (wrapper_type, typeid_map_name, value_value, cpp_class.pytypestruct))

        else:

            wrapper_type = '&'+cpp_class.pytypestruct

        ## Create the Python wrapper object
        cpp_class.write_allocate_pystruct(code_block, py_name, wrapper_type)

        if cpp_class.allow_subclassing:
            code_block.write_code(
                "%s->inst_dict = NULL;" % (py_name,))

        ## Assign the C++ value to the Python wrapper
        if caller_owns_return:
            if type_traits.target_is_const:
                code_block.write_code("%s->obj = (%s *) (%s);" % (py_name, cpp_class.full_name, value_ptr))
            else:
                code_block.write_code("%s->obj = %s;" % (py_name, value_ptr))
            code_block.write_code(
                "%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_NONE;" % (py_name,))
        else:
            if not isinstance(cpp_class.memory_policy, ReferenceCountingPolicy):
                if reference_existing_object:
                    if type_traits.target_is_const:
                        code_block.write_code("%s->obj = (%s *) (%s);" % (py_name, cpp_class.full_name, value_ptr))
                    else:
                        code_block.write_code("%s->obj = %s;" % (py_name, value_ptr))
                    code_block.write_code(
                        "%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_OBJECT_NOT_OWNED;" % (py_name,))
                else:
                    if caller_manages_return:
                        # The PyObject creates its own copy
                        if not cpp_class.has_copy_constructor:
                            raise CodeGenerationError("Class {0} cannot be copied".format(cpp_class.full_name))
                        cpp_class.write_create_instance(code_block,
                                                             "%s->obj" % py_name,
                                                             value_value)
                        code_block.write_code(
                            "%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_NONE;" % (py_name,))
                        cpp_class.write_post_instance_creation_code(code_block,
                                                                    "%s->obj" % py_name,
                                                                    value_value)
                    else:
                        if type_traits.target_is_const:
                            code_block.write_code("%s->obj = (%s *) (%s);" % (py_name, cpp_class.full_name, value_ptr))
                        else:
                            code_block.write_code("%s->obj = %s;" % (py_name, value_ptr))
                        code_block.write_code(
                            "%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_OBJECT_NOT_OWNED;" % (py_name,))
            else:
                if caller_manages_return:
                    ## The PyObject gets a new reference to the same obj
                    code_block.write_code(
                        "%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_NONE;" % (py_name,))
                    cpp_class.memory_policy.write_incref(code_block, value_ptr)
                    if type_traits.target_is_const:
                        code_block.write_code("%s->obj = (%s*) (%s);" %
                                                      (py_name, cpp_class.full_name, value_ptr))
                    else:
                        code_block.write_code("%s->obj = %s;" % (py_name, value_ptr))
                else:
                    if type_traits.target_is_const:
                        code_block.write_code("%s->obj = (%s *) (%s);" % (py_name, cpp_class.full_name, value_ptr))
                    else:
                        code_block.write_code("%s->obj = %s;" % (py_name, value_ptr))
                    code_block.write_code(
                        "%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_OBJECT_NOT_OWNED;" % (py_name,))

    ## closes def write_create_new_wrapper():

    if cpp_class.helper_class is None:
        try:
            if cpp_class.memory_policy is not None:
                cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_lookup_wrapper(
                    code_block, cpp_class.pystruct, py_name, cpp_class.memory_policy.get_pointer_to_void_name(value_ptr))
            else:
                cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_lookup_wrapper(
                    code_block, cpp_class.pystruct, py_name, value_ptr)
        except NotSupportedError:
            write_create_new_wrapper()
            if cpp_class.memory_policy is not None:
                cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(
                    code_block, py_name, cpp_class.memory_policy.get_pointer_to_void_name("%s->obj" % py_name))
            else:
                cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(
                    code_block, py_name, "%s->obj" % py_name)
        else:
            code_block.write_code("if (%s == NULL) {" % py_name)
            code_block.indent()
            write_create_new_wrapper()
            if cpp_class.memory_policy is not None:
                cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(
                    code_block, py_name, cpp_class.memory_policy.get_pointer_to_void_name("%s->obj" % py_name))
            else:
                cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(
                    code_block, py_name, "%s->obj" % py_name)
            code_block.unindent()

            # If we are already referencing the existing python wrapper,
            # we do not need a reference to the C++ object as well.
            if caller_owns_return and \
                    isinstance(cpp_class.memory_policy, ReferenceCountingPolicy):
                code_block.write_code("} else {")
                code_block.indent()
                cpp_class.memory_policy.write_decref(code_block, value_ptr)
                code_block.unindent()
                code_block.write_code("}")
            else:
                code_block.write_code("}")
    else:
        # since there is a helper class, check if this C++ object is an instance of that class
        # http://stackoverflow.com/questions/579887/how-expensive-is-rtti/1468564#1468564
        code_block.write_code("if (typeid(%s).name() == typeid(%s).name())\n{"
                              % (value_value, cpp_class.helper_class.name))
        code_block.indent()

        # yes, this is an instance of the helper class; we can get
        # the existing python wrapper directly from the helper
        # class...
        if type_traits.target_is_const:
            const_cast_value = "const_cast<%s *>(%s) " % (cpp_class.full_name, value_ptr)
        else:
            const_cast_value = value_ptr
        code_block.write_code(
            "%s = reinterpret_cast< %s* >(reinterpret_cast< %s* >(%s)->m_pyself);"
            % (py_name, cpp_class.pystruct,
               cpp_class.helper_class.name, const_cast_value))

        code_block.write_code("%s->obj = %s;" % (py_name, const_cast_value))

        # We are already referencing the existing python wrapper,
        # so we do not need a reference to the C++ object as well.
        if caller_owns_return and \
                isinstance(cpp_class.memory_policy, ReferenceCountingPolicy):
            cpp_class.memory_policy.write_decref(code_block, value_ptr)

        code_block.write_code("Py_INCREF(%s);" % py_name)
        code_block.unindent()
        code_block.write_code("} else {") # if (typeid(*(%s)) == typeid(%s)) { ...
        code_block.indent()

        # no, this is not an instance of the helper class, we may
        # need to create a new wrapper, or reference existing one
        # if the wrapper registry tells us there is one already.

        # first check in the wrapper registry...
        try:
            if cpp_class.memory_policy is not None:
                cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_lookup_wrapper(
                    code_block, cpp_class.pystruct, py_name, cpp_class.memory_policy.get_pointer_to_void_name(value_ptr))
            else:
                cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_lookup_wrapper(
                    code_block, cpp_class.pystruct, py_name, value_ptr)
        except NotSupportedError:
            write_create_new_wrapper()
            cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(
                code_block, py_name, "%s->obj" % py_name)
        else:
            code_block.write_code("if (%s == NULL) {" % py_name)
            code_block.indent()

            # wrapper registry told us there is no wrapper for
            # this instance => need to create new one
            write_create_new_wrapper()
            cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(
                code_block, py_name, "%s->obj" % py_name)
            code_block.unindent()

            # handle ownership rules...
            if caller_owns_return and \
                    isinstance(cpp_class.memory_policy, ReferenceCountingPolicy):
                code_block.write_code("} else {")
                code_block.indent()
                # If we are already referencing the existing python wrapper,
                # we do not need a reference to the C++ object as well.
                cpp_class.memory_policy.write_decref(code_block, value_ptr)
                code_block.unindent()
                code_block.write_code("}")
            else:
                code_block.write_code("}")

        code_block.unindent()
        code_block.write_code("}") # closes: if (typeid(*(%s)) == typeid(%s)) { ... } else { ...



class CppClassParameterBase(Parameter):
    "Base class for all C++ Class parameter handlers"
    CTYPES = []
    cpp_class = None #cppclass.CppClass('dummy') # CppClass instance
    DIRECTIONS = [Parameter.DIRECTION_IN]

    def __init__(self, ctype, name, direction=Parameter.DIRECTION_IN, is_const=False, default_value=None):
        """
        :param ctype: C type, normally 'MyClass*'
        :param name: parameter name
        """
        if ctype == self.cpp_class.name:
            ctype = self.cpp_class.full_name
        super(CppClassParameterBase, self).__init__(
            ctype, name, direction, is_const, default_value)

        ## name of the PyFoo * variable used in parameter parsing
        self.py_name = None

        ## it True, this parameter is 'fake', and instead of being
        ## passed a parameter from python it is assumed to be the
        ## 'self' parameter of a method wrapper
        self.take_value_from_python_self = False


class CppClassReturnValueBase(ReturnValue):
    "Class return handlers -- base class"
    CTYPES = []
    cpp_class = None #cppclass.CppClass('dummy') # CppClass instance

    def __init__(self, ctype, is_const=False):
        super(CppClassReturnValueBase, self).__init__(ctype, is_const=is_const)
        ## name of the PyFoo * variable used in return value building
        self.py_name = None


class CppClassParameter(CppClassParameterBase):
    """
    Class parameter "by-value" handler
    """
    CTYPES = []
    cpp_class = None #cppclass.CppClass('dummy') # CppClass instance
    DIRECTIONS = [Parameter.DIRECTION_IN]

    def convert_python_to_c(self, wrapper):
        "parses python args to get C++ value"
        #assert isinstance(wrapper, ForwardWrapperBase)
        #assert isinstance(self.cpp_class, cppclass.CppClass)

        if self.take_value_from_python_self:
            self.py_name = 'self'
            wrapper.call_params.append(
                '*((%s *) %s)->obj' % (self.cpp_class.pystruct, self.py_name))
        else:
            implicit_conversion_sources = self.cpp_class.get_all_implicit_conversions()
            if not implicit_conversion_sources:
                if self.default_value is not None:
                    self.cpp_class.get_construct_name() # raises an exception if the class cannot be constructed
                    self.py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                        self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', self.name, 'NULL')
                    wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter(
                        'O!', ['&'+self.cpp_class.pytypestruct, '&'+self.py_name], self.name, optional=True)
                    wrapper.call_params.append(
                        '(%s ? (*((%s *) %s)->obj) : %s)' % (self.py_name, self.cpp_class.pystruct, self.py_name, self.default_value))
                else:
                    self.py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                        self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', self.name)
                    wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter(
                        'O!', ['&'+self.cpp_class.pytypestruct, '&'+self.py_name], self.name)
                    wrapper.call_params.append(
                        '*((%s *) %s)->obj' % (self.cpp_class.pystruct, self.py_name))
            else:
                if self.default_value is None:
                    self.py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                        'PyObject*', self.name)
                    tmp_value_variable = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                        self.cpp_class.full_name, self.name)
                    wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter('O', ['&'+self.py_name], self.name)
                else:
                    self.py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                        'PyObject*', self.name, 'NULL')
                    tmp_value_variable = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                        self.cpp_class.full_name, self.name)
                    wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter('O', ['&'+self.py_name], self.name, optional=True)

                if self.default_value is None:
                    wrapper.before_call.write_code("if (PyObject_IsInstance(%s, (PyObject*) &%s)) {\n"
                                                   "    %s = *((%s *) %s)->obj;" %
                                                   (self.py_name, self.cpp_class.pytypestruct,
                                                    tmp_value_variable,
                                                    self.cpp_class.pystruct, self.py_name))
                else:
                    wrapper.before_call.write_code(
                        "if (%s == NULL) {\n"
                        "    %s = %s;" %
                        (self.py_name, tmp_value_variable, self.default_value))
                    wrapper.before_call.write_code(
                        "} else if (PyObject_IsInstance(%s, (PyObject*) &%s)) {\n"
                                                   "    %s = *((%s *) %s)->obj;" %
                                                   (self.py_name, self.cpp_class.pytypestruct,
                                                    tmp_value_variable,
                                                    self.cpp_class.pystruct, self.py_name))
                for conversion_source in implicit_conversion_sources:
                    wrapper.before_call.write_code("} else if (PyObject_IsInstance(%s, (PyObject*) &%s)) {\n"
                                                   "    %s = *((%s *) %s)->obj;" %
                                                   (self.py_name, conversion_source.pytypestruct,
                                                    tmp_value_variable,
                                                    conversion_source.pystruct, self.py_name))
                wrapper.before_call.write_code("} else {\n")
                wrapper.before_call.indent()
                possible_type_names = ", ".join([cls.name for cls in [self.cpp_class] + implicit_conversion_sources])
                wrapper.before_call.write_code("PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError, \"parameter must an instance of one of the types (%s), not %%s\", Py_TYPE(%s)->tp_name);" % (possible_type_names, self.py_name))
                wrapper.before_call.write_error_return()
                wrapper.before_call.unindent()
                wrapper.before_call.write_code("}")

                wrapper.call_params.append(tmp_value_variable)

    def convert_c_to_python(self, wrapper):
        '''Write some code before calling the Python method.'''
        assert isinstance(wrapper, ReverseWrapperBase)

        self.py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
            self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', 'py_'+self.cpp_class.name)
        self.cpp_class.write_allocate_pystruct(wrapper.before_call, self.py_name)
        if self.cpp_class.allow_subclassing:
            wrapper.before_call.write_code(
                "%s->inst_dict = NULL;" % (self.py_name,))
        wrapper.before_call.write_code("%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_NONE;" % (self.py_name,))

        self.cpp_class.write_create_instance(wrapper.before_call,
                                             "%s->obj" % self.py_name,
                                             self.value)
        self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(wrapper.before_call, self.py_name,
                                                                   "%s->obj" % self.py_name)
        self.cpp_class.write_post_instance_creation_code(wrapper.before_call,
                                                         "%s->obj" % self.py_name,
                                                         self.value)

        wrapper.build_params.add_parameter("N", [self.py_name])


class CppClassRefParameter(CppClassParameterBase):
    "Class& handlers"
    CTYPES = []
    cpp_class = None #cppclass.CppClass('dummy') # CppClass instance
    DIRECTIONS = [Parameter.DIRECTION_IN,
                  Parameter.DIRECTION_OUT,
                  Parameter.DIRECTION_INOUT]

    def __init__(self, ctype, name, direction=Parameter.DIRECTION_IN, is_const=False,
                 default_value=None, default_value_type=None):
        """
        :param ctype: C type, normally 'MyClass*'
        :param name: parameter name
        """
        if ctype == self.cpp_class.name:
            ctype = self.cpp_class.full_name
        super(CppClassRefParameter, self).__init__(
            ctype, name, direction, is_const, default_value)
        self.default_value_type = default_value_type

    def convert_python_to_c(self, wrapper):
        "parses python args to get C++ value"
        #assert isinstance(wrapper, ForwardWrapperBase)
        #assert isinstance(self.cpp_class, cppclass.CppClass)

        if self.direction == Parameter.DIRECTION_IN:
            if self.take_value_from_python_self:
                self.py_name = 'self'
                wrapper.call_params.append(
                    '*((%s *) %s)->obj' % (self.cpp_class.pystruct, self.py_name))
            else:
                implicit_conversion_sources = self.cpp_class.get_all_implicit_conversions()
                if not (implicit_conversion_sources and self.type_traits.target_is_const):
                    if self.default_value is not None:
                        self.py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                            self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', self.name, 'NULL')

                        wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter(
                            'O!', ['&'+self.cpp_class.pytypestruct, '&'+self.py_name], self.name, optional=True)

                        if self.default_value_type is not None:
                            default_value_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                                self.default_value_type, "%s_default" % self.name,
                                self.default_value)
                            wrapper.call_params.append(
                                '(%s ? (*((%s *) %s)->obj) : %s)' % (self.py_name, self.cpp_class.pystruct,
                                                                     self.py_name, default_value_name))
                        else:
                            self.cpp_class.get_construct_name() # raises an exception if the class cannot be constructed
                            wrapper.call_params.append(
                                '(%s ? (*((%s *) %s)->obj) : %s)' % (self.py_name, self.cpp_class.pystruct,
                                                                     self.py_name, self.default_value))
                    else:
                        self.py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                            self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', self.name)
                        wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter(
                            'O!', ['&'+self.cpp_class.pytypestruct, '&'+self.py_name], self.name)
                        wrapper.call_params.append(
                            '*((%s *) %s)->obj' % (self.cpp_class.pystruct, self.py_name))
                else:
                    if self.default_value is not None:
                        warnings.warn("with implicit conversions, default value "
                                      "in C++ class reference parameters is ignored.")
                    self.py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                        'PyObject*', self.name)
                    tmp_value_variable = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                        self.cpp_class.full_name, self.name)
                    wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter('O', ['&'+self.py_name], self.name)

                    wrapper.before_call.write_code("if (PyObject_IsInstance(%s, (PyObject*) &%s)) {\n"
                                                   "    %s = *((%s *) %s)->obj;" %
                                                   (self.py_name, self.cpp_class.pytypestruct,
                                                    tmp_value_variable,
                                                    self.cpp_class.pystruct, self.py_name))
                    for conversion_source in implicit_conversion_sources:
                        wrapper.before_call.write_code("} else if (PyObject_IsInstance(%s, (PyObject*) &%s)) {\n"
                                                       "    %s = *((%s *) %s)->obj;" %
                                                       (self.py_name, conversion_source.pytypestruct,
                                                        tmp_value_variable,
                                                        conversion_source.pystruct, self.py_name))
                    wrapper.before_call.write_code("} else {\n")
                    wrapper.before_call.indent()
                    possible_type_names = ", ".join([cls.name for cls in [self.cpp_class] + implicit_conversion_sources])
                    wrapper.before_call.write_code("PyErr_Format(PyExc_TypeError, \"parameter must an instance of one of the types (%s), not %%s\", Py_TYPE(%s)->tp_name);" % (possible_type_names, self.py_name))
                    wrapper.before_call.write_error_return()
                    wrapper.before_call.unindent()
                    wrapper.before_call.write_code("}")

                    wrapper.call_params.append(tmp_value_variable)

        elif self.direction == Parameter.DIRECTION_OUT:
            assert not self.take_value_from_python_self

            self.py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', self.name)

            self.cpp_class.write_allocate_pystruct(wrapper.before_call, self.py_name)
            if self.cpp_class.allow_subclassing:
                wrapper.after_call.write_code(
                    "%s->inst_dict = NULL;" % (self.py_name,))
            wrapper.after_call.write_code("%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_NONE;" % (self.py_name,))

            self.cpp_class.write_create_instance(wrapper.before_call,
                                                 "%s->obj" % self.py_name,
                                                 '')
            self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(wrapper.before_call, self.py_name,
                                                                       "%s->obj" % self.py_name)
            self.cpp_class.write_post_instance_creation_code(wrapper.before_call,
                                                             "%s->obj" % self.py_name,
                                                             '')
            wrapper.call_params.append('*%s->obj' % (self.py_name,))
            wrapper.build_params.add_parameter("N", [self.py_name])

        ## well, personally I think inout here doesn't make much sense
        ## (it's just plain confusing), but might as well support it..

        ## C++ class reference inout parameters allow "inplace"
        ## modifications, i.e. the object is not explicitly returned
        ## but is instead modified by the callee.
        elif self.direction == Parameter.DIRECTION_INOUT:
            assert not self.take_value_from_python_self

            self.py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', self.name)

            wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter(
                'O!', ['&'+self.cpp_class.pytypestruct, '&'+self.py_name], self.name)
            wrapper.call_params.append(
                '*%s->obj' % (self.py_name))

    def convert_c_to_python(self, wrapper):
        '''Write some code before calling the Python method.'''
        assert isinstance(wrapper, ReverseWrapperBase)

        self.py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
            self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', 'py_'+self.cpp_class.name)
        self.cpp_class.write_allocate_pystruct(wrapper.before_call, self.py_name)
        if self.cpp_class.allow_subclassing:
            wrapper.before_call.write_code(
                "%s->inst_dict = NULL;" % (self.py_name,))
        wrapper.before_call.write_code("%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_NONE;" % (self.py_name,))

        if self.direction == Parameter.DIRECTION_IN:
            if not self.cpp_class.has_copy_constructor:
                raise CodeGenerationError("Class {0} cannot be copied".format(self.cpp_class.full_name))
            self.cpp_class.write_create_instance(wrapper.before_call,
                                                 "%s->obj" % self.py_name,
                                                 self.value)
            self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(wrapper.before_call, self.py_name,
                                                                       "%s->obj" % self.py_name)
            self.cpp_class.write_post_instance_creation_code(wrapper.before_call,
                                                             "%s->obj" % self.py_name,
                                                             self.value)
            wrapper.build_params.add_parameter("N", [self.py_name])
        else:
            ## out/inout case:
            ## the callee receives a "temporary wrapper", which loses
            ## the ->obj pointer after the python call; this is so
            ## that the python code directly manipulates the object
            ## received as parameter, instead of a copy.
            if self.type_traits.target_is_const:
                value = "(%s*) (&(%s))" % (self.cpp_class.full_name, self.value)
            else:
                value = "&(%s)" % self.value
            wrapper.before_call.write_code(
                "%s->obj = %s;" % (self.py_name, value))
            wrapper.build_params.add_parameter("O", [self.py_name])
            wrapper.before_call.add_cleanup_code("Py_DECREF(%s);" % self.py_name)

            if self.cpp_class.has_copy_constructor:
                ## if after the call we notice the callee kept a reference
                ## to the pyobject, we then swap pywrapper->obj for a copy
                ## of the original object.  Else the ->obj pointer is
                ## simply erased (we never owned this object in the first
                ## place).
                wrapper.after_call.write_code(
                    "if (Py_REFCNT(%s) == 1)\n"
                    "    %s->obj = NULL;\n"
                    "else{\n" % (self.py_name, self.py_name))
                wrapper.after_call.indent()
                self.cpp_class.write_create_instance(wrapper.after_call,
                                                     "%s->obj" % self.py_name,
                                                     self.value)
                self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(wrapper.after_call, self.py_name,
                                                                           "%s->obj" % self.py_name)
                self.cpp_class.write_post_instance_creation_code(wrapper.after_call,
                                                                 "%s->obj" % self.py_name,
                                                                 self.value)
                wrapper.after_call.unindent()
                wrapper.after_call.write_code('}')
            else:
                ## it's not safe for the python wrapper to keep a
                ## pointer to the object anymore; just set it to NULL.
                wrapper.after_call.write_code("%s->obj = NULL;" % (self.py_name,))


class CppClassReturnValue(CppClassReturnValueBase):
    "Class return handlers"
    CTYPES = []
    cpp_class = None #cppclass.CppClass('dummy') # CppClass instance
    REQUIRES_ASSIGNMENT_CONSTRUCTOR = True

    def __init__(self, ctype, is_const=False):
        """override to fix the ctype parameter with namespace information"""
        if ctype == self.cpp_class.name:
            ctype = self.cpp_class.full_name
        super(CppClassReturnValue, self).__init__(ctype, is_const=is_const)

    def get_c_error_return(self): # only used in reverse wrappers
        """See ReturnValue.get_c_error_return"""
        if self.type_traits.type_is_reference:
            raise NotSupportedError
        return "return %s();" % (self.cpp_class.full_name,)

    def convert_c_to_python(self, wrapper):
        """see ReturnValue.convert_c_to_python"""
        py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
            self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', 'py_'+self.cpp_class.name)
        self.py_name = py_name
        self.cpp_class.write_allocate_pystruct(wrapper.after_call, self.py_name)
        if self.cpp_class.allow_subclassing:
            wrapper.after_call.write_code(
                "%s->inst_dict = NULL;" % (py_name,))
        wrapper.after_call.write_code("%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_NONE;" % (py_name,))

        if not self.cpp_class.has_copy_constructor:
            raise CodeGenerationError("Class {0} cannot be copied".format(self.cpp_class.full_name))
        self.cpp_class.write_create_instance(wrapper.after_call,
                                             "%s->obj" % py_name,
                                             self.value)
        self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(wrapper.after_call, py_name,
                                                                   "%s->obj" % py_name)
        self.cpp_class.write_post_instance_creation_code(wrapper.after_call,
                                                         "%s->obj" % py_name,
                                                         self.value)

        #...
        wrapper.build_params.add_parameter("N", [py_name], prepend=True)

    def convert_python_to_c(self, wrapper):
        """see ReturnValue.convert_python_to_c"""
        if self.type_traits.type_is_reference:
            raise NotSupportedError
        name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
            self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', "tmp_%s" % self.cpp_class.name)
        wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter(
            'O!', ['&'+self.cpp_class.pytypestruct, '&'+name])
        if self.REQUIRES_ASSIGNMENT_CONSTRUCTOR:
            wrapper.after_call.write_code('%s %s = *%s->obj;' %
                                          (self.cpp_class.full_name, self.value, name))
        else:
            wrapper.after_call.write_code('%s = *%s->obj;' % (self.value, name))


class CppClassRefReturnValue(CppClassReturnValueBase):
    "Class return handlers"
    CTYPES = []
    cpp_class = None #cppclass.CppClass('dummy') # CppClass instance
    REQUIRES_ASSIGNMENT_CONSTRUCTOR = True

    def __init__(self, ctype, is_const=False, caller_owns_return=False, reference_existing_object=None,
                 return_internal_reference=None, caller_manages_return=True):
        #override to fix the ctype parameter with namespace information
        if ctype == self.cpp_class.name:
            ctype = self.cpp_class.full_name
        super(CppClassRefReturnValue, self).__init__(ctype, is_const=is_const)
        self.reference_existing_object = reference_existing_object

        self.return_internal_reference = return_internal_reference
        if self.return_internal_reference:
            assert self.reference_existing_object is None
            self.reference_existing_object = True

        self.caller_owns_return = caller_owns_return
        self.caller_manages_return = caller_manages_return

    def get_c_error_return(self): # only used in reverse wrappers
        """See ReturnValue.get_c_error_return"""
        if (
            self.type_traits.type_is_reference
            and not self.type_traits.target_is_const
        ):
            raise NotSupportedError("non-const reference return not supported")
        return "{static %s __err; return __err;}" % (self.cpp_class.full_name,)

    def convert_c_to_python(self, wrapper):
        """see ReturnValue.convert_c_to_python"""
        py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
            self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', 'py_'+self.cpp_class.name)
        self.py_name = py_name

        if self.reference_existing_object or self.caller_owns_return or not self.caller_manages_return:
            common_shared_object_return(self.value, py_name, self.cpp_class, wrapper.after_call,
                                        self.type_traits, self.caller_owns_return,
                                        self.reference_existing_object,
                                        type_is_pointer=False,
                                        caller_manages_return=self.caller_manages_return)
        else:

            self.cpp_class.write_allocate_pystruct(wrapper.after_call, py_name)

            wrapper.after_call.write_code("%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_NONE;" % (py_name,))

            if not self.cpp_class.has_copy_constructor:
                raise CodeGenerationError("Class {0} cannot be copied".format(self.cpp_class.full_name))
            self.cpp_class.write_create_instance(wrapper.after_call,
                                                 "%s->obj" % py_name,
                                                 self.value)
            self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(wrapper.after_call, py_name,
                                                                       "%s->obj" % py_name)
            self.cpp_class.write_post_instance_creation_code(wrapper.after_call,
                                                             "%s->obj" % py_name,
                                                             self.value)

        #...
        wrapper.build_params.add_parameter("N", [py_name], prepend=True)

    def convert_python_to_c(self, wrapper):
        """see ReturnValue.convert_python_to_c"""
        if (
            self.type_traits.type_is_reference
            and not self.type_traits.target_is_const
        ):
            raise NotSupportedError("non-const reference return not supported")
        name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
            self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', "tmp_%s" % self.cpp_class.name)
        wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter(
            'O!', ['&'+self.cpp_class.pytypestruct, '&'+name])
        if self.REQUIRES_ASSIGNMENT_CONSTRUCTOR:
            wrapper.after_call.write_code('%s %s = *%s->obj;' %
                                          (self.cpp_class.full_name, self.value, name))
        else:
            wrapper.after_call.write_code('%s = *%s->obj;' % (self.value, name))


class CppClassPtrParameter(CppClassParameterBase):
    "Class* handlers"
    CTYPES = []
    cpp_class = None #cppclass.CppClass('dummy') # CppClass instance
    DIRECTIONS = [Parameter.DIRECTION_IN,
                  Parameter.DIRECTION_OUT,
                  Parameter.DIRECTION_INOUT]
    SUPPORTS_TRANSFORMATIONS = True

    def __init__(self, ctype, name, direction=Parameter.DIRECTION_IN, transfer_ownership=None, custodian=None, is_const=False,
                 null_ok=False, default_value=None):
        """
        Type handler for a pointer-to-class parameter (MyClass*)

        :param ctype: C type, normally 'MyClass*'
        :param name: parameter name

        :param transfer_ownership: if True, the callee becomes
                  responsible for freeing the object.  If False, the
                  caller remains responsible for the object.  In
                  either case, the original object pointer is passed,
                  not a copy.  In case transfer_ownership=True, it is
                  invalid to perform operations on the object after
                  the call (calling any method will cause a null
                  pointer dereference and crash the program).

        :param custodian: if given, points to an object (custodian)
            that keeps the python wrapper for the
            parameter alive. Possible values are:
                       - None: no object is custodian;
                       - -1: the return value object;
                       - 0: the instance of the method in which
                            the ReturnValue is being used will become the
                            custodian;
                       - integer > 0: parameter number, starting at 1
                           (i.e. not counting the self/this parameter),
                           whose object will be used as custodian.

        :param is_const: if true, the parameter has a const attached to the leftmost

        :param null_ok: if true, None is accepted and mapped into a C NULL pointer

        :param default_value: default parameter value (as C expression
            string); probably, the only default value that makes sense
            here is probably 'NULL'.

        .. note::

            Only arguments which are instances of C++ classes
            wrapped by PyBindGen can be used as custodians.
        """
        if ctype == self.cpp_class.name:
            ctype = self.cpp_class.full_name
        super(CppClassPtrParameter, self).__init__(
            ctype, name, direction, is_const, default_value)

        if transfer_ownership is None and self.type_traits.target_is_const:
            transfer_ownership = False

        self.custodian = custodian
        self.transfer_ownership = transfer_ownership
        self.null_ok = null_ok

        if transfer_ownership is None:
            raise TypeConfigurationError("Missing transfer_ownership option")

    def convert_python_to_c(self, wrapper):
        "parses python args to get C++ value"
        #assert isinstance(wrapper, ForwardWrapperBase)
        #assert isinstance(self.cpp_class, cppclass.CppClass)

        if self.take_value_from_python_self:
            self.py_name = 'self'
            value_ptr = 'self->obj'
        else:
            self.py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', self.name,
                initializer=(self.default_value and 'NULL' or None))

            value_ptr = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable("%s*" % self.cpp_class.full_name,
                                                              "%s_ptr" % self.name)

            if self.null_ok:
                num = wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter('O', ['&'+self.py_name], self.name, optional=bool(self.default_value))

                wrapper.before_call.write_error_check(

                    "%s && ((PyObject *) %s != Py_None) && !PyObject_IsInstance((PyObject *) %s, (PyObject *) &%s)"
                    % (self.py_name, self.py_name, self.py_name, self.cpp_class.pytypestruct),

                    'PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Parameter %i must be of type %s");' % (num, self.cpp_class.name))

                wrapper.before_call.write_code("if (%(PYNAME)s) {\n"
                                               "    if ((PyObject *) %(PYNAME)s == Py_None)\n"
                                               "        %(VALUE)s = NULL;\n"
                                               "    else\n"
                                               "        %(VALUE)s = %(PYNAME)s->obj;\n"
                                               "} else {\n"
                                               "    %(VALUE)s = NULL;\n"
                                               "}" % dict(PYNAME=self.py_name, VALUE=value_ptr))

            else:

                wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter(
                    'O!', ['&'+self.cpp_class.pytypestruct, '&'+self.py_name], self.name, optional=bool(self.default_value))
                wrapper.before_call.write_code("%s = (%s ? %s->obj : NULL);" % (value_ptr, self.py_name, self.py_name))

        value = self.transformation.transform(self, wrapper.declarations, wrapper.before_call, value_ptr)
        wrapper.call_params.append(value)

        if self.transfer_ownership:
            if not isinstance(self.cpp_class.memory_policy, ReferenceCountingPolicy):
                # if we transfer ownership, in the end we no longer own the object, so clear our pointer
                wrapper.after_call.write_code('if (%s) {' % self.py_name)
                wrapper.after_call.indent()
                if self.cpp_class.memory_policy is not None:
                    self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_unregister_wrapper(wrapper.after_call,
                                                                            '%s' % self.py_name,
                                                                            self.cpp_class.memory_policy.get_pointer_to_void_name('%s->obj' % self.py_name))
                else:
                    self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_unregister_wrapper(wrapper.after_call,
                                                                            '%s' % self.py_name,
                                                                            '%s->obj' % self.py_name)
                wrapper.after_call.write_code('%s->obj = NULL;' % self.py_name)
                wrapper.after_call.unindent()
                wrapper.after_call.write_code('}')
            else:
                wrapper.before_call.write_code("if (%s) {" % self.py_name)
                wrapper.before_call.indent()
                self.cpp_class.memory_policy.write_incref(wrapper.before_call, "%s->obj" % self.py_name)
                wrapper.before_call.unindent()
                wrapper.before_call.write_code("}")


    def convert_c_to_python(self, wrapper):
        """foo"""

        ## Value transformations
        value = self.transformation.untransform(
            self, wrapper.declarations, wrapper.after_call, self.value)

        ## declare wrapper variable
        py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
            self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', 'py_'+self.cpp_class.name)
        self.py_name = py_name

        def write_create_new_wrapper():
            """Code path that creates a new wrapper for the parameter"""

            ## Find out what Python wrapper to use, in case
            ## automatic_type_narrowing is active and we are not forced to
            ## make a copy of the object
            if (self.cpp_class.automatic_type_narrowing
                and (self.transfer_ownership or isinstance(self.cpp_class.memory_policy,
                                                           ReferenceCountingPolicy))):

                typeid_map_name = self.cpp_class.get_type_narrowing_root().typeid_map_name
                wrapper_type = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
                    'PyTypeObject*', 'wrapper_type', '0')
                wrapper.before_call.write_code(
                    '%s = %s.lookup_wrapper(typeid(*%s), &%s);'
                    % (wrapper_type, typeid_map_name, value, self.cpp_class.pytypestruct))
            else:
                wrapper_type = '&'+self.cpp_class.pytypestruct

            ## Create the Python wrapper object
            self.cpp_class.write_allocate_pystruct(wrapper.before_call, py_name, wrapper_type)
            wrapper.before_call.write_code("%s->flags = PYBINDGEN_WRAPPER_FLAG_NONE;" % py_name)
            self.py_name = py_name

            ## Assign the C++ value to the Python wrapper
            if self.transfer_ownership:
                wrapper.before_call.write_code("%s->obj = %s;" % (py_name, value))
            else:
                if not isinstance(self.cpp_class.memory_policy, ReferenceCountingPolicy):
                    ## The PyObject gets a temporary pointer to the
                    ## original value; the pointer is converted to a
                    ## copy in case the callee retains a reference to
                    ## the object after the call.

                    if self.direction == Parameter.DIRECTION_IN:
                        if not self.cpp_class.has_copy_constructor:
                            raise CodeGenerationError("Class {0} cannot be copied".format(self.cpp_class.full_name))
                        self.cpp_class.write_create_instance(wrapper.before_call,
                                                             "%s->obj" % self.py_name,
                                                             '*'+self.value)
                        self.cpp_class.write_post_instance_creation_code(wrapper.before_call,
                                                                         "%s->obj" % self.py_name,
                                                                         '*'+self.value)
                    else:
                        ## out/inout case:
                        ## the callee receives a "temporary wrapper", which loses
                        ## the ->obj pointer after the python call; this is so
                        ## that the python code directly manipulates the object
                        ## received as parameter, instead of a copy.
                        if self.type_traits.target_is_const:
                            unconst_value = "(%s*) (%s)" % (self.cpp_class.full_name, value)
                        else:
                            unconst_value = value
                        wrapper.before_call.write_code(
                            "%s->obj = %s;" % (self.py_name, unconst_value))
                        wrapper.build_params.add_parameter("O", [self.py_name])
                        wrapper.before_call.add_cleanup_code("Py_DECREF(%s);" % self.py_name)

                        if self.cpp_class.has_copy_constructor:
                            ## if after the call we notice the callee kept a reference
                            ## to the pyobject, we then swap pywrapper->obj for a copy
                            ## of the original object.  Else the ->obj pointer is
                            ## simply erased (we never owned this object in the first
                            ## place).

                            wrapper.after_call.write_code(
                                "if (Py_REFCNT(%s) == 1)\n"
                                "    %s->obj = NULL;\n"
                                "else {\n" % (self.py_name, self.py_name))
                            wrapper.after_call.indent()
                            self.cpp_class.write_create_instance(wrapper.after_call,
                                                                 "%s->obj" % self.py_name,
                                                                 '*'+value)
                            self.cpp_class.write_post_instance_creation_code(wrapper.after_call,
                                                                             "%s->obj" % self.py_name,
                                                                             '*'+value)
                            wrapper.after_call.unindent()
                            wrapper.after_call.write_code('}')
                        else:
                            ## it's not safe for the python wrapper to keep a
                            ## pointer to the object anymore; just set it to NULL.
                            wrapper.after_call.write_code("%s->obj = NULL;" % (self.py_name,))
                else:
                    ## The PyObject gets a new reference to the same obj
                    self.cpp_class.memory_policy.write_incref(wrapper.before_call, value)
                    if self.type_traits.target_is_const:
                        wrapper.before_call.write_code("%s->obj = (%s*) (%s);" %
                                                       (py_name, self.cpp_class.full_name, value))
                    else:
                        wrapper.before_call.write_code("%s->obj = %s;" % (py_name, value))
        ## closes def write_create_new_wrapper():

        if self.cpp_class.helper_class is None:
            try:
                if self.cpp_class.memory_policy is not None:
                    self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_lookup_wrapper(
                        wrapper.before_call, self.cpp_class.pystruct, py_name, self.cpp_class.memory_policy.get_pointer_to_void_name(value))
                else:
                    self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_lookup_wrapper(
                        wrapper.before_call, self.cpp_class.pystruct, py_name, value)
            except NotSupportedError:
                write_create_new_wrapper()
                self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(wrapper.before_call, py_name,
                                                                           "%s->obj" % py_name)
            else:
                wrapper.before_call.write_code("if (%s == NULL)\n{" % py_name)
                wrapper.before_call.indent()
                write_create_new_wrapper()
                self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(wrapper.before_call, py_name,
                                                                           "%s->obj" % py_name)
                wrapper.before_call.unindent()
                wrapper.before_call.write_code('}')
            wrapper.build_params.add_parameter("N", [py_name])
        else:
            wrapper.before_call.write_code("if (typeid(*(%s)).name() == typeid(%s).name())\n{"
                                          % (value, self.cpp_class.helper_class.name))
            wrapper.before_call.indent()

            if self.type_traits.target_is_const:
                wrapper.before_call.write_code(
                    "%s = (%s*) (((%s*) ((%s*) %s))->m_pyself);"
                    % (py_name, self.cpp_class.pystruct,
                       self.cpp_class.helper_class.name, self.cpp_class.full_name, value))
                wrapper.before_call.write_code("%s->obj =  (%s*) (%s);" %
                                               (py_name, self.cpp_class.full_name, value))
            else:
                wrapper.before_call.write_code(
                    "%s = (%s*) (((%s*) %s)->m_pyself);"
                    % (py_name, self.cpp_class.pystruct,
                       self.cpp_class.helper_class.name, value))
                wrapper.before_call.write_code("%s->obj = %s;" % (py_name, value))
            wrapper.before_call.write_code("Py_INCREF(%s);" % py_name)
            wrapper.before_call.unindent()
            wrapper.before_call.write_code("} else {")
            wrapper.before_call.indent()

            try:
                if self.cpp_class.memory_policy is not None:
                    self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_lookup_wrapper(
                        wrapper.before_call, self.cpp_class.pystruct, py_name, self.cpp_class.memory_policy.get_pointer_to_void_name(value))
                else:
                    self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_lookup_wrapper(
                        wrapper.before_call, self.cpp_class.pystruct, py_name, value)
            except NotSupportedError:
                write_create_new_wrapper()
                self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(
                    wrapper.before_call, py_name, "%s->obj" % py_name)
            else:
                wrapper.before_call.write_code("if (%s == NULL)\n{" % py_name)
                wrapper.before_call.indent()
                write_create_new_wrapper()
                self.cpp_class.wrapper_registry.write_register_new_wrapper(wrapper.before_call, py_name,
                                                                           "%s->obj" % py_name)
                wrapper.before_call.unindent()
                wrapper.before_call.write_code('}') # closes if (%s == NULL)

            wrapper.before_call.unindent()
            wrapper.before_call.write_code("}") # closes if (typeid(*(%s)) == typeid(%s))\n{
            wrapper.build_params.add_parameter("N", [py_name])



class CppClassPtrReturnValue(CppClassReturnValueBase):
    "Class* return handler"
    CTYPES = []
    SUPPORTS_TRANSFORMATIONS = True
    cpp_class = None #cppclass.CppClass('dummy') # CppClass instance

    def __init__(self, ctype, caller_owns_return=None, custodian=None,
                 is_const=False, reference_existing_object=None,
                 return_internal_reference=None, caller_manages_return=True):
        """
        :param ctype: C type, normally 'MyClass*'
        :param caller_owns_return: if true, ownership of the object pointer
                              is transferred to the caller

        :param custodian: bind the life cycle of the python wrapper
               for the return value object (ward) to that
               of the object indicated by this parameter
               (custodian). Possible values are:
                       - None: no object is custodian;
                       - 0: the instance of the method in which
                            the ReturnValue is being used will become the
                            custodian;
                       - integer > 0: parameter number, starting at 1
                          (i.e. not counting the self/this parameter),
                          whose object will be used as custodian.

        :param reference_existing_object: if true, ownership of the
                  pointed-to object remains to be the caller's, but we
                  do not make a copy. The callee gets a reference to
                  the existing object, but is not responsible for
                  freeing it.  Note that using this memory management
                  style is dangerous, as it exposes the Python
                  programmer to the possibility of keeping a reference
                  to an object that may have been deallocated in the
                  mean time.  Calling methods on such an object would
                  lead to a memory error.

        :param return_internal_reference: like
            reference_existing_object, but additionally adds
            custodian/ward to bind the lifetime of the 'self' object
            (instance the method is bound to) to the lifetime of the
            return value.

        .. note::

           Only arguments which are instances of C++ classes
           wrapped by PyBindGen can be used as custodians.
        """
        if ctype == self.cpp_class.name:
            ctype = self.cpp_class.full_name
        super(CppClassPtrReturnValue, self).__init__(ctype, is_const=is_const)

        if caller_owns_return is None:
            # For "const Foo*", we assume caller_owns_return=False by default
            if self.type_traits.target_is_const:
                caller_owns_return = False

        self.caller_owns_return = caller_owns_return
        self.caller_manages_return = caller_manages_return
        self.reference_existing_object = reference_existing_object
        self.return_internal_reference = return_internal_reference
        if self.return_internal_reference:
            assert self.reference_existing_object is None
            self.reference_existing_object = True
        self.custodian = custodian

        if self.caller_owns_return is None\
                and self.reference_existing_object is None:
            raise TypeConfigurationError("Either caller_owns_return or self.reference_existing_object must be given")


    def get_c_error_return(self): # only used in reverse wrappers
        """See ReturnValue.get_c_error_return"""
        return "return NULL;"

    def convert_c_to_python(self, wrapper):
        """See ReturnValue.convert_c_to_python"""

        ## Value transformations
        value = self.transformation.untransform(
            self, wrapper.declarations, wrapper.after_call, self.value)

        # if value is NULL, return None
        wrapper.after_call.write_code("if (!(%s)) {\n"
                                      "    Py_INCREF(Py_None);\n"
                                      "    return Py_None;\n"
                                      "}" % value)

        ## declare wrapper variable
        py_name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
            self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', 'py_'+self.cpp_class.name)
        self.py_name = py_name

        common_shared_object_return(value, py_name, self.cpp_class, wrapper.after_call,
                                    self.type_traits, self.caller_owns_return,
                                    self.reference_existing_object,
                                    type_is_pointer=True,
                                    caller_manages_return=self.caller_manages_return)

        # return the value
        wrapper.build_params.add_parameter("N", [py_name], prepend=True)


    def convert_python_to_c(self, wrapper):
        """See ReturnValue.convert_python_to_c"""
        name = wrapper.declarations.declare_variable(
            self.cpp_class.pystruct+'*', "tmp_%s" % self.cpp_class.name)
        wrapper.parse_params.add_parameter(
            'O!', ['&'+self.cpp_class.pytypestruct, '&'+name])

        value = self.transformation.transform(
            self, wrapper.declarations, wrapper.after_call, "%s->obj" % name)

        ## now the hairy part :)
        if self.caller_owns_return:
            if not isinstance(self.cpp_class.memory_policy, ReferenceCountingPolicy):
                ## the caller receives a copy, if possible
                try:
                    if not self.cpp_class.has_copy_constructor:
                        raise CodeGenerationError("Class {0} cannot be copied".format(self.cpp_class.full_name))
                    self.cpp_class.write_create_instance(wrapper.after_call,
                                                         "%s" % self.value,
                                                         '*'+value)
                except CodeGenerationError:
                    copy_possible = False
                else:
                    copy_possible = True

                if copy_possible:
                    self.cpp_class.write_post_instance_creation_code(wrapper.after_call,
                                                                     "%s" % self.value,
                                                                     '*'+value)
                else:
                    # value = pyobj->obj; pyobj->obj = NULL;
                    wrapper.after_call.write_code(
                        "%s = %s;" % (self.value, value))
                    wrapper.after_call.write_code(
                        "%s = NULL;" % (value,))
            else:
                ## the caller gets a new reference to the same obj
                self.cpp_class.memory_policy.write_incref(wrapper.after_call, value)
                if self.type_traits.target_is_const:
                    wrapper.after_call.write_code(
                        "%s = const_cast< %s* >(%s);" %
                        (self.value, self.cpp_class.full_name, value))
                else:
                    wrapper.after_call.write_code(
                        "%s = %s;" % (self.value, value))
        else:
            ## caller gets a shared pointer
            ## but this is dangerous, avoid at all cost!!!
            wrapper.after_call.write_code(
                "// dangerous!\n%s = %s;" % (self.value, value))
            warnings.warn("Returning shared pointers is dangerous!"
                          "  The C++ API should be redesigned "
                          "to avoid this situation.")


##
##  Core of the custodians-and-wards implementation
##

def scan_custodians_and_wards(wrapper):
    """
    Scans the return value and parameters for custodian/ward options,
    converts them to add_custodian_and_ward API calls.  Wrappers that
    implement custodian_and_ward are: CppMethod, Function, and
    CppConstructor.
    """
    assert hasattr(wrapper, "add_custodian_and_ward")

    for num, param in enumerate(wrapper.parameters):
        custodian = getattr(param, 'custodian', None)
        if custodian is  not None:
            wrapper.add_custodian_and_ward(custodian, num+1)

    custodian = getattr(wrapper.return_value, 'custodian', None)
    if custodian is not None:
        wrapper.add_custodian_and_ward(custodian, -1)

    if getattr(wrapper.return_value, "return_internal_reference", False):
        wrapper.add_custodian_and_ward(-1, 0)



def _add_ward(code_block, custodian, ward):
    wards = code_block.declare_variable(
        'PyObject*', 'wards')
    code_block.write_code(
        "%(wards)s = PyObject_GetAttrString(%(custodian)s, (char *) \"__wards__\");"
        % vars())
    code_block.write_code(
        "if (%(wards)s == NULL) {\n"
        "    PyErr_Clear();\n"
        "    %(wards)s = PyList_New(0);\n"
        "    PyObject_SetAttrString(%(custodian)s, (char *) \"__wards__\", %(wards)s);\n"
        "}" % vars())
    code_block.write_code(
        "if (%(ward)s && !PySequence_Contains(%(wards)s, %(ward)s))\n"
        "    PyList_Append(%(wards)s, %(ward)s);" % dict(wards=wards, ward=ward))
    code_block.add_cleanup_code("Py_DECREF(%s);" % wards)


def _get_custodian_or_ward(wrapper, num):
    if num == -1:
        assert wrapper.return_value.py_name is not None
        return "((PyObject *) %s)" % wrapper.return_value.py_name
    elif num == 0:
        return "((PyObject *) self)"
    else:
        assert wrapper.parameters[num-1].py_name is not None
        return "((PyObject *) %s)" % wrapper.parameters[num-1].py_name


def implement_parameter_custodians_precall(wrapper):
    for custodian, ward, postcall in wrapper.custodians_and_wards:
        if not postcall:
            _add_ward(wrapper.before_call,
                      _get_custodian_or_ward(wrapper, custodian),
                      _get_custodian_or_ward(wrapper, ward))


def implement_parameter_custodians_postcall(wrapper):
    for custodian, ward, postcall in wrapper.custodians_and_wards:
        if postcall:
            _add_ward(wrapper.after_call,
                      _get_custodian_or_ward(wrapper, custodian),
                      _get_custodian_or_ward(wrapper, ward))


